of the reasons why, as he states, "he says heaven when he means science, and heavens when he means sciences." "To

the first seven correspond the seven sciences of the Trivium and the Quadrivium, that is, to Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and Astrology. To the eighth sphere, that is, to the starry Heavens, correspond Natural Science, called Physics, and the first of sciences called Metaphysics; to the ninth sphere corresponds Moral Science; and to the Quiet Heaven corresponds Divine Science, which is called Theology." Hence throughout the treatise wherever he uses the term heavens or any particular heaven, he is referring to the appropriate science, and describing in an allegorical way its characteristics and influences.

The heaven of Venus is compared with rhetoric, because it is the most charming of all the sciences, as Venus is the brightest of the planets; and because as Venus is now a morning, now an evening star, so rhetoric now as oratory appears before the face of the speaker, now as literature, speaks from a distance. The sun is compared with arithmetic, because it illumines all the other sciences, and because, as the eye cannot look upon the sun, so "the eye of the intel lect cannot look upon it; because Number, considered in itself, is infinite, and that we cannot comprehend."

Though but three of the proposed fourteen books, or courses at this intellectual banquet, were completed, and hence, though a most complete and authoritative summary of the learning of the Middle Ages by its greatest genius is denied us, yet in the fragment written the spirit of the intellectual life of the Middle Ages, the spirit that partakes both of scholasticism and mysticism, finds one of its clearest expressions. It illustrates perfectly this judgment of Federn: "There never was a time when so little, and at the same time so much, was known as in the Middle Ages, for people really knew everything; they had a ready explanation for every phenomenon; very clever explanations they often were, but always untested; whatever was or seemed possible, whatever could be made plausible in words, was immediately

accepted; people did not like to doubt, and even the impossible could be dealt with and accepted as a miracle."

SELECTED REFERENCES

I. Books not dealing specially with education but of fundamental importance in acquiring an understanding of the period.

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages. (New York, 1899.)
Draper, The Intellectual Development of Europe. (New York, 1876.)
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, esp. Chs. 16-20, and 37.
Hatch, Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages on the Christian Church.

(London, 1895.)

Lecky, History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne. (New York, 1870.)

MacCabe, St. Augustine and his Age. (New York, 1903.)

MacCabe, Abelard. (New York, 1901.)

(London, 1883.)
(New York, 1896.)
(London, 1884.)

Milman, History of Early Christianity. (London, 1883.)
Milman, History of Latin Christianity.
Montalembert, The Monks of the West.
Poole, Illustrations of Mediæval Thought.
Sandys, A History of Classical Scholarship.

Taylor, Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages. (New York, 1901.)
Townsend, Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages.

II. Books relating directly to education.

(London, 1881.)

Compayre, Abelard and the Origin and Early History of Universities

(New York, 1897.)

Cornish, Chivalry, esp. Ch. III. (London, 1901.)

Drane, Christian Schools and Scholars. (London, 1881.)

Emerton, Mediaval Europe, Ch. 13.

(New York, 1894.)

(London, 1904.)

(New York, 1887.)

Gaskoin, Alcuin, his Life and his Works.

Laurie, Rise and Constitution of Universities.

Mills, History of Chivalry, Vol. I, Ch. II. (London, 1826.)

Monroe, Thomas Platter and the Educational Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century. (New York, 1904.)

Montalembert (The Monks of the West). Bk. 18, Ch. iv.

Mullany, Essays Educational, 1 and 2. (Chicago, 1896.)

Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great. (London, 1877.)

Putnam, Books and their Makers during the Middle Ages, pp. 1-144 (New York, 1896.)

Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1895.) The best work upon the subject.

Robinson, Readings in European History. (Boston, 1904.)

West, Alcuin and the Rise of Christian Schools. (New York, 1892.)
Williams, Education during the Middle Ages.

(Syracuse, 1903.)

TOPICS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION

1. Compare the basis of the disciplinary conception of education in the Middle Ages with the basis of the modern conception of education as formal discipline.

2. What relation can you discover between the conception of the depravity of human nature held throughout the Middle Ages and the attitude toward interest in education?

3. What provisions for literary and intellectual education can you discover in the rules of the various monastic orders?

4. Work out the history of the educational influence of any one particular monastery, e.g. St. Gall, Fulda, Reichnau, Monte Cassino, etc.

5. Work out the educational influence of any one monastic order, especially of the mendicant orders in any one country; eg. the Franciscans or Dominicans in England.

6. To what extent could the duty of copying manuscripts furnish education to the monks?

7. Trace the development of the conception of the Seven Liberal Arts. 8. What was the content of the Seven Liberal Arts as presented by any one writer? E.g., Alcuin, Rabanus Maurus, etc.

9. What similarity exists between the symbolism in education in mediæval ages and that of modern times?

10. What connection do you find between the chivalric education and the conception of education of modern times, later discussed under the head of social realism?

11. What connection between these two and that modern view which holds that the chief function of college education is to produce the character of a "gentleman of leisure and of culture"?

12. Work out in detail the education of a page or of a squire.

13. What educational value can you discover in the study of dialectic as pursued by the Schoolmen?

14. Which of the two methods of scholastic study possessed the greater educational value? Why? Which possessed the greater social value? Why?

15. Compare a day in the life of a university student in a mediæval university with one in the life of a modern university student, with an attempt to discover the educational value of the activities of each.

16. Select some of the questions debated by the Schoolmen, and indicate the educational value to be derived from their study.

17. Study in detail the life of any onc of the great Schoolmen, and from his teachings and writings indicate its educational significance.

18. Work out in detail the nature of the nations, the development of the faculty, the course of study of any one medieval university.

19. Describe the influence of the friars on the life of any one mediæval university.

20. Describe in greater detail the influence of Aristotle on the mediæval university.

21. Trace the influence of the Saracens on any one subject of study during the later Middle Ages. (See the general historical material relating to the early histories of universities.)

22. Describe the life of the wandering scholar as given in the autobiography of Thomas Platter or of Johannes Butzbach.

23. Describe the beginnings of the secular schools of any one country during these later mediæval centuries.