one more element to the floating population made up of friars, pilgrims, merchants, craftsmen, knights, and wandering Churchmen.1

With the founding of the universities and the establishment of the nations in practically every university, it became quite customary for students to travel from university to university, finding in each a home in their appropriate nation. Many, however, willing to accept the privileges of the clergy and the students without undertaking their obligations, adopted this wandering life as a permanent one. Being a

THE BEGGING STUDENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. NUREMBERG, FIFTEENTH CENTURY.

privileged order, they readily found a living, or made it by begging. A monk of the early university period writes: "The scholars are accustomed to wander throughout the whole world and visit all the cities; and their many studies bring them understanding. For in Paris they seek a knowledge of the liberal arts; of the ancient writers at Orleans; of medicine at Salernum; of the black art at Toledo; and in no place decent manners."

1 See Chaucer's Canterbury Pilgrims for contemporary description, and Jusserand's English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages for modern description; also the author's Thomas Platter and the Educational Renaissance of the Six teenth Century.

Just as the resident students were organized into nations so these wandering students were organized into a guild, under the patronage of a titular magister or patron saint, - Golias. Hence they were called goliardi. The typical goliards, those who had accepted this life as a permanent calling, were riotous, unthrifty, unambitious students, who were hangers-on of the higher clergy or who wandered from palace to palace of ecclesiastical or lay lords. As such they appear in literature, contemporary and modern. They are responsible for a considerable literature of Latin songs similar in many respects to the songs of modern college students.

But soon there appeared a new type of wandering student. As the many masters exceeded the demand for university instruction, wandering masters, seeking to attach themselves to chantry and parochial schools, became numerous; and to these were added the youth—the scholares vagantes — who sought to obtain a knowledge of the arts from these schools, and at the same time an easy living. The attractions of the world were added to those of the arts for these wandering scholars, and soon the cities of the Continent, now since the thirteenth century numerous and prosperous, were thronged with such students. In the fourteenth and the fifteenth century the limits of the period cannot be assigned the custom received a further extension. These wandering scholars added to their ranks smaller boys, often not over six or seven years of age, ABC shooters they were called,-who accompanied them, ostensibly to acquire the rudiments of knowledge and to join the ranks of the older boys, but in reality to attend them as servants, to beg their food, to sing for money or food, in fact to make their living. Such wandering students became so numerous that they necessi tated regulation by municipal ordinance. At Nuremberg, the center of German learning and Renaissance influences during the fifteenth century, a city ordinance required that such

schools should send out only one begging student at a time, that his operations should be restricted to a given parish, and that he should be identified by the picture of the patron saint of the school, carried on the basket in which victuals were to be collected.

NEW TYPES OF SCHOOLS. -The later Middle Ages were well supplied with schools, not all of which were dominated by the Church. For a century before the Reformation it is probable that schools were as numerous and that as wide an opportunity for study existed as for a century afterward. Monastic schools never recovered their importance after the Renaissance of the thirteenth century. Cathedral schools that grew into new prominence in the early university period were insufficient for the demand. Not only secondary but elementary education was provided in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in a much more general way than ever before.

An important and probably the most general class of these were the chantry schools. Chantry foundations — the gift of property to support a priest in return for prayers for the souls of the benefactor and of his family, or for certain stipulated purposes were the most common form of benefactions to the Church during the later Middle Ages. Thus it happened that foundations for priests existed beyond all demand for parochial service; as the religious services required by the foundations could occupy but a small portion of time, it became customary to stipulate that such priests should teach the children of the community. As a matter of course, the regulations of these foundations present the greatest variations. Some provide for a small number of children, some for all comers; some provide that instruction shall be gratis, some permit a fee; some indicate that the merest rudiments were taught, others stipulate that instruction shall be given in grammar and the higher branches. In the larger towns,

where chantry and similar foundations were numerous enough to support a body of priests under collegiate organization, and several priests could be designated as teachers, schools sometimes grew up that rivaled in size and in character of work the schools of the cathedral foundations. It no longer occurs that these schools are controlled by monastic teachers, for aside from the mendicant orders, the monks have largely ceased their general educational activities.

Another type of school, yet more free from ecclesiastical control, was the guild school. Very commonly did the merchant and craft guild support priests for the performance of all sorts of religious services for their members. Such priests saw the child of the guild member received into the world with proper religious rites and saw him decently out; he celebrated for him all the sacraments; frequently he kept school. Some guilds established schools of great repute, which have had long histories. The Merchant Taylors' School of London is probably the most notable. Ordinarily the school was but an elementary one, though often it was also a grammar school for the children of the guild members or for others. Such schools would ordinarily give instruction. in other subjects than Latin, and frequently before the Renaissance came to give instruction in the vernacular.

With the coalescing of the guild organization and the early municipal government, these schools along with many of the parish schools mentioned above, became in many communities the burgher schools. Such schools were largely controlled and supported by secular authorities, and in the content of their school work better represented the economic interests and demands of the citizens. They were often taught by priests, though lay teachers became more and more numerous. In a similar way private schools, usually of most elementary character, more responsive to new economic and social demands, sprang up. However irregular these private schools were, they yet contributed to the development of

independent town schools. Clerical inspection was yet almost universal, and the Church through the scholasticus or some other episcopal officer or even through the parish priest, sought to extend its jurisdiction over both these types of schools.

The tendency toward the establishment of those schools was well marked in the Teutonic countries before the Reformation movement began. In Italy it is doubtful whether the municipal or at least secular private schools had ever ceased to exist. Certain it was that the early universities sprang from such schools where there had been some elementary study of Roman law previous to the foundation of Bologna. During these later mediæval centuries such schools, not of a university grade yet free from ecclesiastical control and governed by secular interests, were quite numerous.

While this entire subject of secular schools previous to the Reformation is a question of controversy concerning the interpretation of historical material, it is evident that the preparation has been made before the Reformation for the secularization of education that was to follow.

THE NEW LITERATURES as well as new types of schools gave expression to the new intellectual interests and social demands, and indicated that neither the thought-life nor the life of material interests could be restrained within the old channels. It is not to be understood that there were no vernacular literatures before these closing centuries of the Middle Ages. In German, Icelandic, and Anglo-Saxon among the Teutonic peoples, and in French, Irish, and Welsh among the Celts, not to mention other minor tongues, there was a literature covering in a general way the entire dark ages from the sixth to the eleventh century. Treating of the heroic deeds of their leaders, of the wonderful prowess and the petty intrigues of their pagan deities, of Biblical story or of the traditions of their race, such literature as that of the