in almost to the point of madness, extravagant display, child ish wastefulness, want of military discipline, want of good faith alike to Christians and infidels." Under chivalry these ideals, constituting the character of a gentleman, were very much more definitely formulated than in modern ages. As thus definitely organized, the knight summed up all duties of life, under his obligations to God, to his lord, and to his lady.

In one respect chivalry performed for secular life a service identical with that performed by monasticism for the religious life: it dignified the idea of service and held up to a rude and violent people, accustomed both to resent any restriction upon their liberty of action and to indulge in a most unrestrained manner temper and anger, the ideal of obedience to rule and to personal command. While this organization of society had its demerits as well and led to or sanctioned a contempt for inferiors and a regulation rather than an eradication of evil, it is difficult to overestimate its value in ameliorating the crudities and the barbarities of the life of the times through the new attitude toward service and obedience. This influence was probably the greatest or, at least, the most immediate that Christianity could exert upon the virile barbarism of the Teutons. And chivalry is largely, though indirectly, the result of the influence of the Church. Especially in the Crusades, and with this movement chivalry first became definitely organized, the Church consecrated the dominant militant interests and characteristics of the Teuton and secured their devotion to its interests. This ideal of a life of service substituted for one of lawless gratification, if it did not modify radically the character of their life, constituted a complete change in the direction and motive of their education.

Reverence for superiors, a consideration for inferiors, a gentleness toward all weak and defenseless, a courtesy toward all women, were further ideals or amplifications of the ideal of service and obedience. A greater gentleness of

manner, of consideration for others in deed and speech, in fact, a general amelioration of manners followed throughout all classes of society. While it is true that this courtesy and consideration were enforced by the constant threat of mortal combat if violated, and that this was a regulation of evils that sanctioned the violence of previous times, yet it was a great advance to have definite ideals of social conduct recognized by these classes of society. Such recognition implied a long course of training, a definite education upon the part of those professing to follow this new type of life.

The ideal of courage or bravery required no specific training to secure its development, but the use of arms necessary to follow this life did. The ideal of gallantry or courtesy in itself probably needed no formal instruction that it might be produced; but chivalric gallantry, the proper courtesy and demeanor in company, did require a prolonged training, for its forms were many and intricate and the entire chivalric life was one of most punctilious formal observance. The general ideals of chivalry, its effect upon society and the individual, and, by inference, the character of education demanded are indicated in this summary from Cornish : Chivalry taught the world the duty of noble service willingly rendered. It upheld courage and enterprise in obedience to rule, it consecrated military prowess to the service of the Church, glorified the virtues of liberality, good faith, unselfishness, and courtesy, and, above all, courtesy to women. Against these may be set the vices of pride, love of bloodshed, contempt of inferiors, and loose manners. Chivalry was an imperfect discipline, but it was a discipline, and one fit for the times."

Our concern is in the organization of this discipline into an educational scheme, such as furnished to the free and especially to the upper classes in society their only organized education from the seventh to the fifteenth or even sixteenth century.

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHIVALRY. — The education of a knight was divided into two distinct periods: that of the page, which covered approximately the period from the seventh to the fourteenth year, and that of the squire, which covered approximately the period from the fourteenth to the twenty-first year. Every feudal lord, of every rank, and the more prominent clerics as well, maintained a court that was attended by the sons and frequently by the daughters of the subordinate gentry of his realm. The greater gentry usually sent their sons to the court of the king or sometimes to that of one of their peers. Oftentimes the sons of kings served in their own home. But it was the usual custom for

all ranks of chivalry, a custom probably growing out of the earlier custom of taking hostages, to send their children from home. In some instances, though very rarely, schools were established. For the most part the training was given through a definitely organized household or court service. Obedience and service were thus dignified by having the noblest born conform to the same ideals. For during this training sons of knights even thus waited upon the table and performed similar menial offices. By the same process, gentleness and consideration were developed in those in authority, since they had also served, and since their servants, those in personal charge of the table, of the horses, the dogs, the hawks, the bed chamber, the stables, etc., were all persons of rank.

The page began with simple service about the castle, especially in attendance upon the ladies. As he grew older he waited upon the table. This duty he continued to perform as a squire; and in addition to these a great variety of personal services to his lord. All culminated in the office of "squire of the body," who was the immediate personal attendant upon his lord in battle and in tournament.

The page and the squire were supposed to learn "the rudiments of love, of war, and of religion." The "rudiments

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of love" were courtesy, kindliness, gentleness, pleasant demeanor, generosity, the knowledge of the very elaborate formalities of conduct, good manners, pleasant, even stilted, speech, and the ability to turn a rhyme. Love was to protect the youth from the evils of anger, envy, sloth, gluttony, and excesses of all kinds. The rudiments of love were to be acquired through service to the ladies and through the teachings of the minstrels. It often happened that to these things the squire added the ability to play the harp and to sing. The squire had in particular to devote himself to the service and the amusement of the ladies of the court. He participated in their hunting and hawking expeditions, in the entertainment of the court, perhaps in the reading of chivalric literature and in the game of chess. Chaucer thus describes the squire:

'Syngynge he was or floytynge [playing], ai the day;

He was as fressh as is the monthe of May.

Short was his gowne, with sleves longe and wyde.
Wel koude he sitte on hors and faire ryde;

He koude songes make and wel endite,

Juste and eek daunce and weel purtreye and write.
So hoote he lovede that by nyghtertale

He slepte namoore than dooth a nyghtyngale ;
Curteis he was, lowely and servysable,

And carf biforn his fader at the table."

The ability to just, spoken of by Chaucer, was the chief of the rudiments of war. The justing in the tournament was the chief preparation for war; in time it became a substitute. For this the youth was trained from his earliest years in the ability to ride, to handle the shield, to wield the sword, to tilt with the lance, to cast the javelin, to exercise in armor, in fact, in every martial exercise. Tilting at a revolving target, either in boats or on horseback, was much practiced. Hunting and hawking furnished training for warfare as well as the chief amusements of the nobility. The latter, which was

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chiefly the hunting of water fowl, was the peculiar privilege of the nobility. This training in the rudiments of war de veloped an ability to withstand all hardships of life in the open air, an indifference to pain, an ability to withstand hunger and fatigue.

As the period for knighting drew nigh the religious aspects of chivalry were emphasized. Throughout the ceremony, which usually required some weeks of religious service, the Church attached the nobility to it and sanctioned and directed their warlike activities. The prospective knight must go through ceremonies of purification, his sword was blessed by a priest, and in the ceremony, frequently if not usually held in a church, he swore "to defend the Church, to attack the wicked, to respect the priesthood, to protect women and the poor, to preserve the country in tranquillity, and to shed his blood in behalf of his brethren."

In all of this training there is little of the intellectual. In the earlier centuries of chivalry it was an effeminacy to know how to write; in the later centuries the knowledge of reading and writing both among men and women of the upper classes was quite common. The knowledge of the French language the language of chivalry - was quite necessary. This study of French and the song and music of the minstrels were the only literary elements in this type of education. However, there were occasional instances of more marked attainments.

One of the early English texts gives this description of the aim of chivalric education: "To lerne them [the future knights] to ryde clenely and surely; to draw them also to justes; to lerne were their harenys; to haue all courtesy in wordes, dedes, and degrees; dilygently to kepe them in rules. of goyinges and sittinges after they be of honor. Moreover to teche them soundry languages and othyr lernyings ver tuous, to harpe, to pype, sing and daunce." 1

1 Furnival, Education in Early England, p. ii.