to be but "Moses speaking Attic." Identifying the Platonic idea of a divine sense for ideas with the Hebrew idea of inspiration and the idea of a theosophical revelation to the individual thinker, there developed a type of philosophy — the Neoplatonic that had great influence in subsequent centuries.

In a similar way Christian thought was early introduced into Alexandria, where its followers attempted a similar harmonization of Christianity with Greek philosophy that resulted in the development of Gnosticism. Here the early Christian Fathers were educated, and from these general sources, that is the north African intellectual centers, proceeded that formulation of Christian doctrine that is yet accepted as the orthodox.

With the fall of Alexandria into Mahometan power (640 A.D.) all this intellectual activity ceased, or what little was left was transferred to the Saracens, to be later revived in Saracen science and philosophy at Bagdad and Cordova. The library was destroyed by the first caliph, furnishing, it is said, fuel sufficient for four thousand public baths for a period of six months.

FUSION WITH ROMAN EDUCATION. After the Roman Conquest (146 B.C.) Greek culture in general was rapidly appropriated by the Roman conquerors, and the education of the cosmopolitan period extended its boundaries without changing its character.

The elementary education, consisting of the grammatical study of language, the secondary education, consisting of the rhetorical study of literature and the development of oratorical power, and at least the institutional side of higher education, consisting of philosophical schools, universities, and libraries were largely appropriated by the Romans and given further systematization. In its later phase Roman education, when "captive Greece took captive her rude conqueror," is but one aspect of the cosmopolitan education of Greece.

REFERENCES

Blümmer, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks, Ch. III.

(London, 1893.)

Bosanquet, The Education of the Young in Plato's Republic. (Cambridge.

1900.)

Burnet, Aristotle on Education.

(Cambridge, 1903.)

Capes, University Life in Ancient Athens.

(London, 1877.)

Davidson, Education of the Greek People. (New York, 1892.)

Davidson, Aristotle and the Ancient Education Ideals. (New York, 1898.) Grote, History of Greece, Chs. LXVII, LXVIII. (London, 1850.)

Kingsley, Alexandria and Her Schools. (London, 1854.)

Lane, Elementary Greek Education. (Syracuse, 1895.)

Laurie, Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education, pp. 196-300. (New
York and London, 1895.)

Mahaffy, Old Greek Education. (New York and London, 1898.)
Mahaffy, Greek Life and Thought. (London, 1887.)

Monroe, Source Book in the History of Education for the Greek and Roman
Period, Part I. (New York, 1901.)

Nettleship, Theory of Greek Education in Plato's Republic, in Abbott's Hellenica. (London, 1880.)

Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship. (Cambridge, 1903.)

St. John, Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece. (London, 1842.)
Wilkins, National Education in Greece. (London, 1873.)

Selections from Thucydides, Plutarch, Aristophanes, Xenophon, Plato, and
Aristotle. (Given in Source Book.)

TOPICAL QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. In what respects did the city state, through its demands upon its citizens, furnish an education? (See De Coulanges, The Ancient City, and Fowler, City State of the Greeks and Romans.)

2. What educational ideals and practices are given by implication or by direct delineation in the following passages in the Iliad: I, 52-302; II, 35380, 445-482; IX, 50-180; X, 335-579; XI, 617-809; XVIII, 245-318; XIX, 40-275?

3. To what extent are the ideals of old Greek education expressed in the oration of Pericles, given by Thucydides? (See Source Book, pp. 2431.) To what extent are the ideals given therein expressions of the new?

4. What further connection between the political and social changes in Greek life and the new education can be discovered in the more detailed account given by Grote, Curtius, Thirlwell, Zeller, Holm. etc?

5. In what respects are the problems of education in the transition period similar to those of the present time?

6. What concrete changes in education characteristic of the transitional period are indicated in The Clouds of Aristophanes ?

7. In what respects are the activities and the ideals of the sophists similar to those of present-day educators?

8. To what extent does Plato's idealistic solution of the educational problem offer suggestion concerning the formulation of the educational aim at the present time? Educational method? Educational organization?

9. What similarity is there between the approach to the problems of education made by Plato in The Laws (Bk. II, pp. 653-654), and the approach made by students in the present time?

10. To what extent are Aristotle's arguments concerning the fundamental importance of education to society, or the state, valid at the present time? 11. How far does Aristotle's solution of the ethical problem of the conflict between the individual and social welfare offer a solution of the educational problem of the present?

12. What are the arguments given by the educational theorists that explain the peculiar use made by the Greeks of music in education? Of gymnastics?

13. How far was the Greek method in education superior to the method of the present time?

14. How far is the Socratic method of instruction valid?

Basil 331-374 Jerome, Letters, Julian licenses

CHAPTER IV

THE ROMANS. EDUCATION AS TRAINING FOR PRAC

TICAL LIFE

Domi

-In many

GENERAL CHARACTER OF ROMAN EDUCATION. nant Institutions and the Genius of the People. respects the genius of the Roman people was antipodal, in some respects complementary, to that of the Greeks. Dominated by the same institution, the city state, upon which their civilization, like that of the Greeks, was based, they took a radically different course of development. It is in the results of this course rather than in its causes, that we are here interested.

The Roman was not one who found satisfaction in the attainment for its own sake to a subjective state, a state of happiness, a life of contemplation, of æsthetic enjoyment, of intellectual activity. More characteristic of his genius was the striving for some external object; the accomplishment of some concrete purpose lying outside of his own thought life, of some form of excellence or achievement of concrete, even of material, value to his fellows, and similarly striven for by them.

Practical Character of the Roman Genius. - The genius of the Romans was, in a word, wholly a practical one, the great merit of which was that it accomplished concrete results by adapting means to ends. On the other hand, the Greek genius, as will be recognized through a consideration of the fullest development of the Greek mind in their philosophers, possessed a peculiar power of defining proper aims in life,