an end in itself and constituted the good for all the rest, -are not given. The treatise ends here abruptly, and that subject upon which above all others Aristotle could have thrown light, is left with mention only. From his other discussions, however, we know that this higher education would contain a large element of mathematics, — especially of geometry, because of its training in deductive reasoning, and also of the mathematical sciences, physics and astronomy. From Aristotle's own example we may presume that it would include the natural sciences and, above all, dialectic, including both the philosophical and the logical studies so thoroughly developed in his own school. Following this "speculative" education, or rather along with it, comes the practical education in citizenship. This includes two types of activities, the practical or executive, and the theoretical or legislative and judicial. The citizen develops from the former into the latter, and comes to devote more and more of life to purely intellectual pursuits. Finally, those best acquainted with divine things enter the priesthood. Thus gradually the practical life passes into the "speculative," and the lesser goods are de veloped into the highest good of all, the life good in itself. It was no figure of termed Aristotle "the

Practical Influence of Aristotle. speech that Dante used when he master of those who know." The one reason why Aristotle and Plato also deserve so extended a mention in an outline of the history of education which purports to be an account of facts and not of the theories of a few individuals is not because of the extent or even the peculiar character of their writings, but because of the actual influence these writings have had upon subsequent times. In later chapters, on the Middle Ages, on the Renaissance, on the origin of modern science, the subject of Aristotle's influence must again arise; hence a brief mention of the main outlines of his influence will here suffice.

Aristotle was the first great scientist - the greatest systematizer, in fact, that the world has ever known. As Plato was the great philosopher and initiated the lines of inquiry which yet constitute the chief questions in every branch of metaphysics and of ethics, so Aristotle sought to give to all subjects of inquiry, even those of metaphysics and ethics, a scientific form. Not content, however, with giving scientific form to other lines of inquiry, he organized as fundamental to all, the science of the form of thought. For fourteen hundred years after the opening of the Christian era, indeed the period might be extended to include the century of the Reformation itself, - no book, save the Bible, had any such influence as the Organon of Aristotle. This work includes, first, the Prior Analytics, a treatise on the syllogism or on the elements of reasoning of all kinds; second, the Posterior Analytics, or the logic of the deductive sciences; and, third, the Topics, or the art of discussing subjects where demonstration is impossible. To these divisions of the formal science which underlies all science, subsequent times have added little or nothing, so thorough was the work of the master. Concerning the art of inductive reasoning, which Aristotle himself practiced so successfully and for the first time consciously, he wrote little, and that little was lost to all the Middle Ages. So it happened that the first great master of inductive reasoning fastened upon the human race for a thousand years a type of intellectual life that was purely deductive in character, and hence non-progressive. Dialectic, or the conscious process of reasoning, either for the discovery of truth or for mere victory over an opponent, which first became conscious with the sophists, which was given a moral bent by Socrates and a universal application by Plato, was by Aristotle given universal form and universal influence.

So fundamental was Aristotle's influence in these respects that the scientific thinker as well as the person in everyday

life is indebted to him for many of the most expressive terms in language. Such words as end, indicating the final purpose or cause, the term final cause to indicate end in this sense, the word form, the word matter and subject-matter as we use it in education (from the term indicating the timber which the carpenter uses), such words as principle, maxim, motive, faculty, energy, habit, category, mean, and extreme are all the results of his efforts to systematize knowledge.

Even more important than words are the very subjects of study, or branches of knowledge which Aristotle first organized. Through the partial formulation of the inductive. method and the application of thought to new phases of reality, almost wholly neglected before his times, he became the originator of many modern sciences. Among those upon which he wrote treatises are physiology, mechanics, natural philosophy, or physics in its broader principles, and the corresponding biologic science, natural history.

Universally recognized as the strongest of the ancients, down to the time of the fifteenth-century Renaissance Aristotle's name was supreme. Through scholasticism (Ch. IV, Sec. 4) his work became the basis of all studies, and of all educational institutions during the Middle Ages. In fact it might be said that during those ages, all secular writings, save a few by this one man or such works as were based directly upon his, dropped out of human interests.

His immediate influence in Greece was not so fundamental. His school of adherents, the Peripatetics, did not rise to his standard, made little or no use of induction, and spent their time in writing commentaries or fruitless interpretations and adaptations, mostly upon isolated topics. The writings of the master were carried to Asia Minor (287) where for nearly two hundred years they were lost; when finally recovered they found their way to the Alexandrian library and later to Rome. Through translations into Arabic the knowledge of Aristotle was kept alive among the

Saracens at Bagdad, and later throughout their empire, and by them was carried into Spain. Thence as well as from the East the Saracen learning revived and purified the European interest in and knowledge of the master during the early university period.

THE COSMOPOLITAN PERIOD OF GREEK EDUCATION. General Characteristics. During this period the tendencies of the transitional period become permanently fixed. The influence of all the philosophical teachers had in practice but strengthened the emphasis upon the life of retirement from public duties and social activities as the ideal of highest development. If the intellectual life is held to be free from control of general standards of social obligation, or at least is held to be of greater worth, why should not the standard of the practical life be determined by the individual himself? Thus the tendency toward individualism is confirmed by the very forces that attempt to check the growing evil. Consequently there is no development of educational ideals or standards. Theoretically there is none possible beyond that of Plato and Aristotle; practically no formulation of general standards or ideas could take place at all. Philosophy ceases to be the attempt to discover truth and becomes but an exposition of doctrine. Not "What is so?" but "What saith the master?" is ever the test. It is not so much a body of ethical or metaphysical principles that holds the disciples together into a school, but rather the study of a common subject-matter.

Two educational features characterize this period: the one, the conquest of the civilized world by Greek ideas and Greek culture; the other, the formation of definite types of educational institutions.

Spread of Greek Culture. As Aristotle through his philosophy summed up all the intellectual life of the past,

and through his method laid the basis for all intellectual life of the future, so through his great pupil, Alexander the Great, he spread the culture of Greece throughout the known world. It was through the power of mind, though unconscious, that Greece in an earlier day had driven off the hordes of Asia; now through the power of mind, consciously developed and applied, she returned to make captive her would-be conqueror, as still later she enthralled by the same power her Roman master. Through genius of administration Alexander made his preliminary conquest: through the Greek culture he aimed to make it permanent. Though his successors furthered his plans, one alone, Ptolemy, carried them out to the full. Within a century after Alexander the habits and customs of all of the East, - even of the ever reserved Jews, - were colored by those of the Greeks. Oriental peoples produced Greek philosophers; Greek philosophers in turn accepted in essence the Hebrew religion, or later the Christian faith. Greek schools, Greek theaters, Greek baths, Greek institutions of every type were to be found in every city in the East. At the time of the Mohammedan conquest, after almost a thousand years of vicissitudes, the city founded to bear the name of the conqueror possessed 400 theaters, 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, and a library of 700,000 volumes.

Through the work of the Greeks during this period, learning became, as it remains now, universal; it was the possession of no peculiar people, and became independent of time and place. As learning took upon itself this universal influence, it tended on the other hand to become individualistic in character. The philosopher tended to withdraw from interest in society; the individual, to find the highest ends in life in states of consciousness rather than in forms of social activity. Ethics, the philosophy of the moral life, gradually disassociated itself from the life of political activity and related itself under the Oriental, especially Jewish, influence with the religious life. As a consequence both the

M