As there are two passages which communicate with the mouth, the oesophagus, or canal which leads to the stomach, and the larynx, or windpipe; and as the œsophagus is beyond the stomach, the food in passing to the stomach must necessarily pass over the windpipe; to prevent it from falling into it, there is a small valve called the epiglottis, which, in the action of swallowing, lies flat over the upper part of the larynx; and should the smallest crumb or drop insinuate itself under the epiglottis, it produces a kind of convulsive irritation and coughing in order to expel it, for were it to go down the larynx the result might be suffocation and death. After the breath has passed through the glottis, the harmony and modulation of the voice will depend principally on the tongue, the palate, the teeth, and the nostrils.

Of all the members the tongue is the most active, and by its surprising flexibility can accommodate itself to any position; it can contract or extend, be applied to the teeth or the palate, or assume any shape necessary for articulation. If the tongue be too large, the speech will be thick and indistinct. The palate, or roof of the mouth, collects and reverberates the voice, which is deep and sonorous in proportion to the size of its arch. By the teeth the breath is collected and retarded, and they, in conjunction with the tongue and lips, give utterance to some of the consonants. The nostrils are also of much use in producing a pleasing and clear sound. If they are obstructed, the voice assumes a thick and disagreeable twang.

As it must be evident that no person can read or speak even moderately well without a clear and perfect articulation, the greatest care should be taken that children do not in their early infancy acquire faulty habits, for when confirmed, it will be scarcely possible to eradicate them.

In reading, every syllable and almost every letter in the word should be uttered distinctly, without muttering or suppressing any of the sounds.

Distinctness of expression will depend on the force of utterance, combined with a proper elevation of the voice, and moderation in the speed of pronouncing. The voice resembles a musical instrument, the key-note of which

may be altered according to the inclination of the speaker. A tune may be played in a high key, although the volume of sound may be small: a tune may also be played in a low key, while the volume of sound is large. Just so it is with the voice; the strength of sound does not depend on the key of the voice, but on the force of the expulsion of the breath. A speaker should therefore be particularly careful to adapt his voice to the size of the room in which he is speaking, and not to give it either too great a degree of elevation or depression; in either case it will be wearisome and painful to himself and his auditors.

Due moderation in the rate of utterance is also of the utmost consequence in regard to distinctness of delivery. Although a monotonous drawl is of all things most disagreeable, yet speakers in general err in being too rapid in their delivery rather than in being too slow.

Some persons, from a defect in the vocal organs, are unable to articulate distinctly, but the number of these is few; indistinctness of utterance being more generally occasioned through early neglect. The chief impediment to articulation is stuttering. This is a most disagreeable habit, and difficult to cure, although in most instances a cure might be effected by care on the part of the stutterer. When a hesitation occurs the speaker should stop entirely, and again commence a new effort. The greatest degree of deliberation should be used in ordinary discourse, and he should inspire himself with confidence and self-command, for stuttering very generally proceeds from nervous irritability. He should also practise for a considerable time the vowel sounds, and then the different powers of the consonants, both singly and in combination with the vowels; thus, by attention and resolute determination to overcome the habit, he will most probably succeed.

Another preventive to articulation is a habit of lisping, sometimes acquired through affectation. The lisper generally gives the sound of th for that of s; this may be easily cured by a little attention to the position of the vocal organs in speaking.

There are certain other habits which are great enemies to articulation, as hissing, speaking through the nose, keeping the jaws too close, &c., all of which are generally

caused through want of attention in early childhood, but which it is far from impossible to eradicate.

A faulty pronunciation likewise evinces neglect in early education. The mode of expression used by the polite and well-educated should be observed and strictly followed; and whenever a young person is doubtful as to the correct pronunciation of a word, recourse should be immediately had to a pronouncing dictionary. As speaking is a mechanical art, imitation and practice will always effect a correct Articulation and Pronunciation, provided there be no natural defect in the structure of the organs of speech.

RULES AND DIRECTIONS IN READING AND

SPEAKING.

Although a speaker may articulate well and pronounce correctly, yet, without energy, grace, and pathos, he will have the appearance of a living statue; and though he may not absolutely disgust, he will be very far from giving pleasure, or exciting admiration.

One of the chief requisites for energetic delivery is a strong and flexible voice; and this, if not natural, may to a certain extent be acquired by cultivation. The degree of strength of the voice depends on many causes, one of which is the texture of the larynx. If the vocal chords do not possess sufficient tension, the voice will be weak; while on the contrary, if they are firm and elastic, ceteris paribus, the voice will be powerful. Persons that are asthmatic, or have any obstruction in the action of the lungs, have naturally a weak voice; but as the strength of the muscles of the body may be increased by exercise, so may the strength of the voice.

In public speaking and reading, but more particularly the former, an energetic mode must be cultivated. The speaker must be animated, and must exert himself so as to convince his hearers that he is in earnest in what he says. A listless, languid, heavy manner, cannot, under any circumstances, render effective the most nervous language and the most exalted sentiment. A graceful delivery does not by any means imply an affected mincing utterance, but, on the contrary, an openness and roundness of delivery. While full liberty should be given to

the motion of the jaws, a pompous and mouthing manner should be particularly avoided. Many persons err in this: respect; when reading they use a tone different from what they do in conversation; they increase the number of accents and emphases, thinking that they thus increase the importance of the subject.

As in every word, except monosyllables, there is one syllable and sometimes more that receive a stronger percussion of the voice than the rest, which is called the accented syllable, so in every sentence there is one word at least, and sometimes more, that require a particular stress of the voice, called the emphasis. The emphatic words must be those whose object it is to express the chief design of the speaker; and the placing the emphasis on the proper word is not only necessary for a graceful and correct delivery, but the sense of the sentence often depends on it. The learner should avoid multiplying unnecessary emphatic words, and placing the emphasis on trifling monosyllables. A common error, particularly in reading, is a continued uniformity of tone without emphasis or cadence. During the whole of any discourse there never occurs a sentence which should be uttered in the same tone of voice. In common conversation nature dictates a mode of expression varied according to the subject; the same should be the case in reading and speaking.

As a proper emphasis is of so much consequence, the following directions require the particular attention of the student.

First. Words that are in opposition, so as to form a contrast or antithesis require such an emphasis as may clearly mark the contrast.

Secondly. In a climax or gradual increase of sense there should be an increase of emphasis, and at the same time a gradual elevation of voice.

Thirdly. When the sense of the sentence admits a gradual swell of the voice, it should be concluded with a graceful and easy cadence; although the voice should not by any means uniformly fall at the close of a sentence, for the contrary sometimes takes place, but this depends on the sense.

Another requisite for graceful delivery* is a proper attention to the pauses. The punctuation of a sen tence does not in impassioned language moderate the time of rest or suspension of utterance in the delivery of such sentence; this depends on the sense, and with a proper tone of voice has the effect of emphasis. A pause prepares the ear for what is about to follow, and the length of the pause must depend on the degree of importance to be attached to the subject.

Force of argument, harmony and elegance of language, and gracefulness of delivery, however excellent, are ineffective without that which has been termed the heart and soul of eloquence-pathos.

Every animal gives expression to its feelings by appropriate tones. The hen when the hawk is in sight expresses her terror, and calls together her brood by a particular cluck. How different is the tone of the dog when he fawns on his master to what it is when he gives notice of an intruder. In like manner every animal expresses its various sensations, its apprehensions of danger, hunger, pleasure, pain, &c. in distinct and different tones. Man in common conversation gives an appropriate utterance to his feelings; if elated, he assumes an expression of joy; if depressed, of sorrow. It is then most natural and most proper, that when in reading or speaking, we use the language of joy or sorrow, other passion, to accompany such passion by a corresponding tone of voice and gesture. The tones of the passions are uniformly the same to every sex and people, and they cannot be expressed in any other way than by the voice. It is they which give a force and spirit to whatever we utter. How powerfully are we acted on by the earnest and pathetic delivery of a moving discourse; our feelings become roused, and like chords in unison

or of

any

I tell you truly and sincerely, that I shall judge of your parts by your speaking gracefully or ungracefully. If you have parts you w will never be at rest till you have brought yourself to a habit of speaking most gracefully; for I aver that it is in your power. Take care to open your teeth when you speak; to articulate every word distinctly and beg of any friend you speak to, to remind and stop you, if ever you fall into a rapid and unintelligible mutter. LORD CHESTERField.