horsemen to protect the harbors, to provide for the grain supply, 8. Cæsar's to observe what was taking place in Gaul, and to exercise his second invasion, 54 B.C. judgment in plans suited to occasion and circumstance. He himself set sail at sunset with five legions and a force of cavalry equal to that which he had left on the continent. After being carried on by a gentle southwest wind, about midnight the wind ceased and he was not able to hold to the course. Carried too far by the tide, at daybreak he found Britain lying behind him on his left. Again the tide changed and he hastened with oars to make that part of the island where he had learned the previous summer there was an excellent landing. In this the bravery of the soldiers must be praised, since with heavily laden transports they with ceaseless rowing equaled the speed of the war galleys. They approached Britain with all their ships about midday and not an enemy was seen in the place; though, as Cæsar afterwards learned from the captives, great bands of them had assembled there, but terrified by the vast number of ships (for with the ships of the previous year and with the private vessels which each had made for his own pleasure, more than eight hundred were seen at one time), they had left the shore and hidden themselves in the higher places.

Britons

When Cæsar had landed his army and chosen a place suit- Forest fight able for a camp, he learned from captives where the forces of ing of the the enemy had encamped. After placing Quintus Atrius in charge of ten cohorts and three hundred cavalrymen near the sea to guard the ships, about the third watch he hastened towards the enemy, fearing little for the safety of these ships because he had left them anchored on an open and gently sloping coast. By night he had marched about twelve miles and came in sight of the enemy's forces. The latter, advancing from their higher position towards the river with their cavalry and chariots, sought to check the forward movement of our men, and to join battle. Repulsed by our cavalry they fled to the forests, to a place excellently fortified both by nature and art, and which, as was seen later, they had prepared before this time for the purpose of defense in their own tribal wars, for all the entrances were closed by barricades of trees cut for this purpose. The enemy in small detachments kept rushing from

9. Cicero to Atticus

10. Cicero to Atticus

these fortifications to fight, and prevented our men from entering their stronghold. But the soldiers of the seventh legion, forming a testudo, and throwing up a mound opposite the fortification, took the place, and after receiving a few wounds drove the enemy from the forest. Cæsar forbade his men to follow the enemy in flight too far both because he was ignorant of the locality and because he wished time to be left for fortifying the camp, and it was already late in the day.

As soon as Cæsar learned their plans, he led his army towards the Thames River into the territory of Cassivellaunus; this river can be forded only in one place and there only with difficulty. When he arrived there he noticed that on the other side of the stream the enemy was drawn up in line of battle. Besides, the bank of the river was fortified by sharpened stakes which had been driven into the ground above the water level, and stakes of the same kind were fastened in the river bed below the water. When Cæsar learned of these things from captives and fugitives he sent the cavalry ahead and ordered the legions to follow immediately. But the soldiers went with such speed and force that although only their heads were above the water, the enemy could not withstand their attack, and, withdrawing from the bank, fled precipitately.

Two letters from Cicero written to his friend Atticus in the fall of the year 54 B.C. give a glimpse of the way Casar's invasion of Britain looked to contemporary Romans.

The outcome of the war in Britain is being awaited. For it is certain that the approaches to the island are guarded with wonderful strength. Moreover it is now known that there is not an ounce of silver in that island, nor any hope of booty except of slaves. Of these I do not believe you need expect any trained in letters, music, or poetry.

I received, October 24, letters from my brother Quintus and from Cæsar, dated on the nearest shore of Britain, September 26. Britain was subdued, hostages had been received, and although no money booty had been obtained, the army was being brought back from Britain.

II. THE CUSTOMS OF THE BRITONS

Cæsar with his usual keenness observed the Britons and made inquiries about them at the same time that he was carrying on war with them. The results of his investigations as he gives them in his narrative, incorrect as some of his statements probably are, furnish us our first satisfactory information concerning the inhabitants of the island of Britain.

of the

The inland portions of Britain are inhabited by those who 11. Cæsar's themselves say that according to tradition they are natives of description the soil; the coast regions are peopled by those who crossed Britons from Belgium for the purpose of making war. Almost all of these are called by the names of those states from which they are descended and from which they came hither. After they had waged war they remained there and began to cultivate the soil. The island has a large population, with many buildings constructed after the fashion of the Gauls, and abounds in flocks. For money they use either gold coins or bars of iron of a certain weight. Tin is found in the inland regions, iron on the seacoast; but the latter is not plentiful. They use imported bronze. All kinds of wood are found here, as in Gaul, except the beech and fir trees. They consider it contrary to divine law to eat the hare, the chicken, or the goose. They raise these, however, for their own amusement and pleasure. The climate is more temperate than in Gaul, since there are fewer periods of cold. . .

By far the most civilized are those who dwell in Kent. Their entire country borders on the sea, and they do not differ much from the Gauls in customs. Very many who dwell farther inland do not sow grain but live on milk and flesh, clothing themselves in skins. All the Britons paint themselves with woad, which produces a dark blue color; and for this reason they are much more frightful in appearance in battle. They permit their hair to grow long, shaving all parts of the body except the head and the upper lip. Ten and twelve have wives

Fighting

common among them, especially brothers with brothers and parents with children; if any children are born they are considered as belonging to those men to whom the maiden was first married.

This is their manner of fighting from chariots. At first the from chariots charioteers ride in all directions, usually throwing the ranks into confusion by the very terror caused by the horses, as well as by the noise of the wheels; then as soon as they have come between the squads of horsemen, they leap from the chariots and fight on foot. The drivers of the chariots then withdraw a little from the battle and place the chariots together, so that if the warriors are hard pressed by the number of the enemy, they have a safe retreat to their own. Their horsemen possess such activity and their foot soldiers such steadfastness in battle and they accomplish so much by daily training that on steep and even precipitous ground they are accustomed to check their excited horses, to control and turn them about quickly, to run out on the pole, to stand on the yoke, and then swiftly to return to the chariot.

12. Strabo

on the cus

toms of the Britons

Strabo, a Greek writer who traveled widely about the beginning of the Christian era, gives in his Geography the following description of the Britons and some of their customs, as he knew of them some fifty years after the time of Cæsar.

The men are taller than the Gauls, with hair less yellow, and are slighter in their persons. As an instance of their height I myself saw at Rome some youths who were taller by as much as half a foot than the tallest there; but they were badly shaped in their lower limbs, and in other respects not symmetrical in their conformation. Their manners are in part like those of the Gauls, though in part more simple and barbarous; insomuch that some of them, though possessing plenty of milk, have not skill enough to make cheese, and are totally unacquainted with horticulture and other matters of husbandry. There are several states among them. In their wars they make use of chariots for the most part, as do some of

the Gauls. Forests are their cities: for having inclosed an ample space with felled trees, here they make themselves huts and lodge their cattle, though not for any long continuance.

Their atmosphere is more subject to rain than to snow; even in their clear days the mist continues a considerable time, insomuch that throughout the whole day the sun is only visible for three or four hours about noon time, and this must be the case also among the Morini and the Menapii, and among all the neighboring peoples. The deified Cæsar twice passed over Cæsar's inef to the island, but quickly returned, having effected nothing of fective campaign importance, nor proceeded far into the country, as well on account of some commotions in Gaul, both among his own soldiers and among the barbarians, as because of the loss of many of his ships at the period of the full moon, when both the ebb and flow of the tides were greatly increased. Nevertheless he gained two or three victories over the Britons, although he had transported thither only two legions of his army, and brought away hostages, slaves, and much other booty.

At the present time, however, some of the princes, having by their embassies and court gained the friendship of Cæsar Augustus, have dedicated their offerings at the Capitol, and have brought the whole island into a state little short of intimate union with the Romans. They bear moderate taxes, laid both on the imports and the exports from Gaul; which are ivory bracelets and necklaces, amber, and vessels of glass, and such like mean merchandise. Wherefore the island would be hardly worth a garrison, for it would require at least one legion and some cavalry to enforce tribute from them; and the total expenditure for the army would be equal to the additional revenue, since if a tribute were levied, the imposts must of necessity be diminished, and at the same time some dangers must be incurred if force were to be employed.

There are also other small islands around Britain, and one Ireland of great extent, Hibernia, lying parallel to it towards the north, long or rather wide, concerning which we have nothing positive to remark, further than that its inhabitants are more savage than the Britons. The account of Thule is still

.