military assistants, and the productive classes, (vdanınòv, iñixɣpinòr, and xnuatiotixò, each perform their distinct services without clashing or interference. (p. 146.)

To these three sections of the community, Plato assimilates three parts of the mind of an individual-reason, passion or heat, and appetite. Reason is the guardian or governor-passion, its ally or assistant (ixxxv) though not always faithful-the ministration of the rest belongs to appetite ( ἐπιθυμητικόν in the individual, χρηματιστικών in the community.) Justice in an individual, like justice in a community, consists in a proper adjustment of these three principles; when each performs its own function, and does not encroach upon the province of the rest. So also temperance in an individual is like temperance in a community, consisting in a due subordination of the inferior appetite to the bridle and sovereignty of reason. (p. 157.)

At the beginning of the fifth book, Plato treats of the education and condition of females in his republic. Whether any peculiar business shall be assigned exclusively to women, as distinguished from men, or whether individuals of either sex shall indiscriminately exercise and be distributed through all the separate callings, is the question which first comes under his consideration. His decision is, that women, as

well as men, shall exercise all the different employments in the state. Because the superiority of men over women is perfectly universal, nor is there any field of action in which a woman can display equal aptitude with a man: it will not be prudent, therefore, to commit any particular pursuit exclusively to females. But as some women undoubtedly manifest greater ingenuity and aptitude than others, the proper course will be to distribute them throughout the different professions, as inferior functionaries and assistants to men, according to the talents with which they appear to be endowed. (p. 172.) If they are to be employed in the same functions as men, the same education will be demanded for them as for the male sex. (p. 167.) Women, therefore, of the finest endowments and disposition will be selected, to associate themselves with the class and in the function of guardians. Their minds and bodies will be trained in exactly the same manner as those of the male guardians. They will be subjected to the same musical and gymnastical education, and will be co-operating, though less efficient, ministers of the very same services. (pp. 172–3.)

The male and female guardians will live and eat constantly together in the encampment appropriated to them. Their intercourse, however, will not be promiscuous, but regulated under the superintendence of the magistrate, one of the most difficult and delicate tasks (as Plato admits) which could possibly be imposed upon him. (p. 177.) He is to pair together the finest couples of men and women, consecrating the time of their union by certain feasts and sacred rites. Inferior pairs are to come together by lot, in order to remove the appearance of responsibility from the magistrate in cases where he could have no means of forming a conclusion. From the age of 30 to 55 in males, from 20 to 40 in females, the breeding powers are thus considered as under the appropriation and superintendence of the magistrate, for the purpose of improving the breed. Should any individual thwart this purpose by intercourse either illicit or unsanctioned by the magistrate, such a proceeding is stigmatised as iniquitous and unholy, as tending to introduce

into the state (had it remained undiscovered) an inauspicious issue, which had not been ushered in by the established religious prayers and observances. Should any young man discover signal proofs of merit, a more abundant range of sexual intercourse is to be conferred upon him, partly as a reward, partly ἵνα καὶ ἅμα μετὰ προφάσεως ὡς πλεῖστοι τῶν παίδων ἐκ τῶν τοιέτων σπειρῶνται. (p. 178.)

The issue of the superior pairs, who have been coupled under the express direction of the magistrate, are to be taken from their mothers as soon as born, and brought up by the public and authorised nurses. The mother is to suckle it for a short time; but the greatest pains are to be taken that no father or mother may know their own child, nor any child his own father or mother. (p. 175.) A man is to call every child born in the tenth or seventh month after his marriage by the title of son or daughter; all persons born at the same time with himself, by the name of brother and sister. (p. 180.)

The issue of the inferior pairs are to be taken by the public nurses, and concealed in some obscure and unknown spot.* It is probably meant that they are to be destroyed, as no subsequent mention is made of them. The same fate also awaits the offspring of the superior pairs, if they should turn out deformed, (vánpov.) Men and women who have passed beyond the regulated period of breeding, are no longer restricted by the magistrate in their intercourse, (except mothers and fathers with daughters and sons, known and defined as I have stated above.) But these women are to take especial care either to bring no offspring into the world, or, if any should be born, to expose it; inasmuch as it cannot be received into the community.†

Such are the remarkable regulations by which Plato altogether extinguishes the ties of kindred, and merges them in the corporate and patriotic affections. His object is to introduce an entire community of pleasure and pain among the governing class, and to prevent the objects of their love and hatred from becoming at all separated and individualized. Property and kindred are the two grand circumstances which narrow and isolate the feelings and wishes of a man.‡

Another benefit which Plato remarks as emanating from this extinction of individual interest, is the removal of almost all the cause for litigation, except personal injuries. And with regard to these latter, he seems to think it advisable that every one should rely upon his own strength for his own protection, in order to render perfection in the gymnastic exercises still more indispensably requisite. (p. 185).

Some regulations next follow respecting the conduct of these military guardians in a war. The male and female guardians are both to take part in warlike expeditions. They are also to take the children with

* Ἐν ἀπορρήτῳ τε καὶ ἀδήλῳ κατακρύψουσιν, ὡς πρέπει. p. 179.

† Μάλιστα μὲν μήδ' εἰς φῶς ἐκφέρειν κύημα μηδὲν, ἐὰν γένηται· ἐὰν δέ τι βιάσηται, ἔτω ἐκτιθέναι ὡς ἐκ ἔσης τροφῆς τῷ τοιάτῳ. p. 180.

† Αρ' ὧν ἐ τά τε πρόσθεν εἰρημένα (the absence of private property) καὶ τὰ νῦν λεγόμ ενα ἔτι μᾶλλον, ἀπεργάζεται αὐτὲς ἀληθινὸς φύλακας, καὶ ποιεῖ μὴ διασπᾷν τὴν πόλιν, τὸ ἐμὸν ὀνομάζοντας μὴ τὸ αὐτὸ, ἀλλ ̓ ἄλλον ἄλλο; τὸν μὲν εἰς τὴν ἑαυτῷ οἰκίαν ἕλκοντα ὅ, τι ἂν δύναιτο χωρὶς τῶν ἄλλων κτήσαθσαι τὸν δὲ εἰς τὴν ἑαυτῶ, ἑτέραν ἦσαν ; καὶ γυναῖκά τι καὶ παῖδας ἑτέρας, ἡδονάς τε καὶ ἀλγηδόνας ἐμποιῶντας, ἰδίων ὄντων ἰδίας; ἀλλ ̓ ἕνι δόγματι τῇ οἰκεία πέρι, ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ τείνοντας πάντας εἰς τὸ δυνατὸν, ὁμοπαθεῖς λύπης τε καὶ ἡδονῆς tiras. p. 184.

them, wherever it is practicable to place them on a secure spot near the field of battle, partly that they may gain experience, partly to whet the valour of the fathers and mothers. (p. 188.) In case of cowardice, a warrior is to be degraded to the post of an artificer. On the other hand, the man of distinguished bravery is to be crowned by the youth who accompany the expedition; he is to be celebrated in songs, and to enjoy the most conspicuous place at feasts and other ceremonies; any person to whom he is attached is not permitted to refuse a return of his affection; and he is to be worshipped as a god after death. (pp. 189 -190.) The conduct of the warriors towards their enemies, particularly towards Grecian enemies, is to be more humane than that usually practised in the time of Plato. They are never to enslave, or to inflict general ravage upon another Greek nation; nor are they to strip the dead bodies of their enemies. (pp. 191-3.)

At this point, Plato causes Socrates to be interrupted by Glaucon, who expresses a doubt concerning the practicability of the scheme which he has been sketching. Socrates, after saying that an exact copy of the scheme would not be required, but merely an approximation to it în spirit and principle, proceeds to touch on the causes which opposed its introduction. He perfectly and heartily admits the magnitude of these causes, and represents the plan as difficult in the highest degree, though certainly not altogether unattainable. (p. 228.)

The leading and indispensable requisite to the application of his principles is contained in the following remarkable sentence: "Unless (he says) either philosophers shall rule in the cities, or those who are now styled kings and governors (duvártai) shall become genuine and complete philosophers-so that political power and philosophy may in this manner coincide, and the numbers who now pursue each of them separately may be of necessity excluded-there exists not any respite of misery for states, nor (as I think) for the human race.' This condition is absolutely necessary for the establishment of his republic (he continues).

The definition which follows of the character of a real philosopher, embraces almost the whole sum of moral and intellectual excellence. His thirst for knowledge is universal and insatiate, and this ensures his acquisition of the practical experience necessary for government, inasmuch as there is no branch of information which he is content to abandon. (p. 209). But yet there is one unvarying standard, which serves as the guide, the measure, and the connecting link of his researches, and to which all the particular facts that he acquires become subservient. This constant search after general principles constitutes an important distinction between him and other men, who never ascend above the fact of the moment, nor submit their opinions to any test or comparison. (p. 206). Indeed (as Plato remarks) it is merely the presence or absence of a standard of reference which constitutes the difference between knowledge and conjecture (izioriμn and déğa.) ibid. Besides this, the philosopher is quick in acquiring instruction, and tenacious in retaining it; his attachment to truth is ardent and inviolable, and maintains such complete supremacy in his mind, as to allay the thirst for

* Οὐκ ἔστι κακῶν παῦλα ταῖς πόλεσι· δοκῶ δὲ, ἐδὲ τῷ ἀνθρωπίνῳ γίνει. p. 197.

money and all bodily luxuries, and thus to ensure a temperate conduct. (pp. 209-210.) His views are grand and expansive, and altogether free from that illiberality and over-estimate of trifles (μxpoλoya) which Plato judiciously deems more inconsistent than any other quality of mind, with philosophy. (p. 210.) The same turn of thought prevents him from over-rating the desirableness of life, and confers upon. him genuine intrepidity and contempt of death. He is gentle and good-tempered, and possesses a natural decency and elegance which sets off the rest of his character to the best advantage. (p. 211.) μνήμων, εὐμαθής, μεγαλοπρεπής, εύχαρις, φίλος τε καὶ ξυγγενὴς ἀληθείας, δικαιοσύνης, ἀνδρίας, σωφροσύνης. (ibid.) Such is the splendid assemblage of qualities, without the combination of which no man (according to Plato) is fit for the pursuit of philosophy as it ought to be pur

sued.

Here Adimantus objects: that the actual character and situation of existing philosophers by no means correspond to the description of Socrates. For of those who devoted their lives to this pursuit, the greater number were persons of inconsiderable talents, indeed base and contemptible*, while the very best of them were by their pursuit rendered useless to the state. (p. 212.) To this Socrates accedes, and proceeds to explain the reasons which rendered such a result inevitable, from the actual state of institutions and manners.

So brilliant an union of endowments must naturally occur very rarely, under any circumstances; and each of those accomplishments, which constitute when combined the philosophic character, will, if possessed singly, disqualify and withdraw him from the pursuit. Wealth, beauty, strength, and powerful connexions (should such be his situation) will also distract and dissipate his mental powers. (p. 217.) Should his genius still shine forth as superior, he will meet with caresses and flattery from parties who are anxious to enlist in their service so able an auxiliary; and this will render him satisfied with his own attainments, and remove all motive to that application without which the science of government cannot be acquired. When too, on his entrance into public life, he listens to the opinions in general circulation, the current of fashionable applause and censure will overmaster his mind, and will wash away the very best previous instruction imaginable. His estimate of virtue and vice will thus become altogether debased, and adjusted to the reigning errors, even on the supposition that his private education beforehand had been excellent. But this will in all probability not have been the case; for the instructors of youth will be obliged by their own interest to inculcate lessons conformable to the dominant opinions, and to bestow upon these precepts the name of wisdom. His notions of truth and justice will thus be perverted from the earliest period of infancy, and the whole tone of morality becomes nothing but a wretched flattery of the actual pre

Πάνω ἀλλοκότους, ἵνα μὴ παμπονήρους εἴπωμεν.

† Τὸ δὲ ὁ κτητὸν μὴ δελεύσαντι τῇ κτήσει αὐτοῦ. p. 222.

† Ποίαν ἂν αὐτῷ (δοκεῖς) παιδείαν ἰδιωτικὴν ἀνθίξειν, ἣν & κατακλυσθεῖσαν ὑπὸ τὰ τοιού του ψόγου ἢ ἐπαίνου, οιχήσεσθαι φερομένην κατὰ ροῦν ᾗ ἂν οὗτος φέρῃ. p. 218.

§ Με ἄλλα παιδεύειν, ἢ ταῦτα τὰ τῶν πολλῶν δόγματα, ἃ δοξάζουσιν ὅταν αθροισθῶσι, καὶ σοφίαν ταύτην καλεῖν. p. 219.

ferences of the public.* All this is still farther confirmed and enforced by the tenour of the laws, which inflict disgrace and punishment upon the dissentient. (p. 219.) Under such disadvantageous circumstances, the formation of a single valuable and philosophical character must be matter of the greatest rarity. And the man of surpassing energy and abilities, who under a good system of education would have been foremost in promoting the welfare of his country, becomes only the instrument of deeper and superior injury. (p. 222.)

And wisest those who prize them most.

We do not mourn them-days have come
More calm, without decline;

Days that have peopled memory's home
With deeds and thoughts divine;
And years have taught our hearts to prize
Man's noblest aims and destinies.

But those sweet, careless, joyous hours,
And all they promised us,

The cloudless sky, the path of flowers,
Still may delight us, thus-

A glimpse of Heaven was given us then,
And we would see that Heaven again.

We want to look this wide world through
As then it brightly lay

Before our eyes: a thing all new,
A game for us to play;

And to our young, unskilful hand
Its chances seem'd at our command.

And in the dim, unmeasured length
Of many a distant day,

A treasure of exhaustless strength

Behind, before us lay;

And hearts to love, and hopes to gain

The love we priz'd, were given us then.

Well, "all is beautiful," the bright

And dazzling dawn of youth;
The glories of that better light

The high, full noon of truth—

Yet still the wayward poet says,

"Forget not thou our childish days."

* Οἷς μὲν χαίροι ἐκεῖνος, ἀγαθὰ καλῶν· οἷς δὲ ἄχθοιτο, κακά. p. 220

E. T.

τι περ ἂν σώθῃ καὶ γίνηται οἷον δεῖ ἐν τοιάυτη καταστάσει πολιτειῶν, θεοῦ μοίρανῖ

αὐτὸ σῶσαι λίγων, οὐ κακῶς ἐρεῖς. γ. 219.