137

3. Does nature contribute more to the efficacy of labour in some occu-
pations than in others?

17

4. Some natural agents limited, others practically unlimited, in
quantity

CHAPTER II. Of Labour as an Agent of Production.

$1. Labour employed either directly about the thing produced, or in
operations preparatory to its production

2. Labour employed in producing subsistence for subsequent labour
- in producing materials

3.

4.

5.

6.

-

-

-

or implements .

- in the protection of labour

in the transport and distribution of the produce

7. Labour which relates to human beings

8. Labour of invention and discovery

9. Labour agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial

CHAPTER III. Of Unproductive Labour.

$1. Labour does not produce objects, but utilities

2.

- which are of three kinds

3. Productive labour is that which produces utilities fixed and em-
bodied in material objects

30

4. All other labour, however useful, is classed as unproductive

31

5. Productive and Unproductive Consumption

28

29

32

6. Labour for the supply of Productive Consumption, and labour for
the supply of Unproductive Consumption

33

CHAPTER IV. Of Capital.

$1. Capital is wealth appropriated to reproductive employment
2. More capital devoted to production than actually employed in it
3. Examination of some cases illustrative of the idea of capital

CHAPTER V. Fundamental Propositions respecting Capital.

§ 1. Industry is limited by Capital

2. but does not always come up to that limit

3. Increase of capital gives increased employment to labour, without
assignable bounds

4. Capital is the result of saving

5. All capital is consumed.

PAGEA
39

41

41

43

44

6. Capital is kept up, not by preservation, but by perpetual repro-
duction

7. Why countries recover rapidly from a state of devastation

8. Effects of defraying government expenditure by loans
9. Demand for commodities is not demand for labour

10. Fallacy respecting Taxation

CHAPTER VI. Of Circulating and Fixed Capital.

§ 1. Fixed and Circulating Capital, what

2. Increase of fixed capital, when at the expense of circulating, might
be detrimental to the labourers

CHAPTER VII. On what depends the degree of Productiveness
of Productive Agents.

§ 1. Land, labour, and capital, are of different productiveness at diffe-
rent times and places

2. Causes of superior productiveness. Natural advantages

4.

5.

superior skill and knowledge

superiority of intelligence and trustworthiness in the commu-
nity generally

CHAPTER VIII. Of Co-operation, or the Combination of Labour.

§ 1. Combination of Labour a principal cause of superior productiveness
2. Effects of separation of employments analysed

3. Combination of labour between town and country
4. The higher degrees of the division of labour
5. Analysis of its advantages

CHAPTER IX. Of Production on a Large, and Production on

a Small Scale.

71

73

74

75

77

80

§ 1. Advantages of the large system of production in manufactures
2. Advantages and disadvantages of the joint-stock principle
3. Conditions necessary for the large system of production.
4. Large and small farming compared

CHAPTER X. Of the Law of the Increase of Labour.

§ 1. The aw of the increase of production depends on those of three
elements, Labour, Capital, and Land

2. The Law of Population

3. By what checks the increase of population is practically limited

CHAPTER XI. Of the Law of the Increase of Capital.

1. Means and motives to saving, on what dependent
2. Causes of diversity in the effective strength of the desire of accu-
mulation

3. Examples of deficiency in the strength of this desire
4. Exemplification of its excess

PAGE

100

102

103

107

CHAPTER XII. Of the Law of the Increase of Production

from Land.

1. The limited quantity and limited productiveness of land, the real
limits to production

108

2. The law of production from the soil, a law of diminishing return
in proportion to the increased application of labour and capital. 109
3. Antagonist principle to the law of diminishing return; the pro-
gress of improvements in production

CHAPTER XIII. Consequences of the foregoing Laws.

1. Remedies when the limit to production is the weakness of the
principle of accumulation

2. Necessity of restraining population not confined to a state of
inequality of property

nor superseded by free trade in food.

111

117

CHAPTER II. The same subject continued.

§1. The institution of property implies freedom of acquisition by con-

the power of bequest, but not the right of inheritance.

Ques-

tion of inheritance examined

135

4. Should the right of bequest be limited, and how?

138

5. Grounds of property in land, different from those of property in
moveables

only valid on certain conditions, which are not always realized.
The limitations considered

141

CHAPTER III. Of the Classes among whom the Produce
is distributed.

§ 1. The produce sometimes shared among three classes

.

PAGE
145

145

146

CHAPTER IV. Of Competition and Custom.

§ 1. Competition not the sole regulator of the division of the produce. 147
2. Influence of custom on rents, and on the tenure of land
3. Influence of custom on prices

148

149

CHAPTER V. Of Slavery.

1. Slavery considered in relation to the slaves
2. - in relation to production

3. Emancipation considered in relation to the interest of the slave-

owners

CHAPTER VI. Of Peasant Proprietors.

§ 1. Difference between English and Continental opinions respecting
peasant properties

2. Evidence respecting peasant properties in Switzerland

3. in Norway

-

6.

in the Channel Islands

4. in Germany

- in France

-

CHAPTER VII. Continuation of the same subject.

§ 1. Influence of peasant properties in stimulating industry

§ 1. Nature of the metayer system, and its varieties
2. Its advantages and inconveniences

3. Evidence concerning its effects in different countries
4. Is its abolition desirable?

CHAPTER IX. Of Cottiers.

§ 1. Nature and operation of cottier tenure
2. In an overpeopled country its necessary consequence is nominal

3. which are inconsistent with industry, frugality, or restraint on

population

196

4. Ryot tenancy of India

197

CHAPTER X. Means of abolishing Cottier Tenancy.

§ 1. Irish cottiers should be converted into peasant proprietors
2. Present state of this question

CHAPTER XI. Of Wages.

PAGE

§1. Wages depend on the demand and supply of labour-in other
words, on population and capital

2. Examination of some popular opinions respecting wages

3. Certain rare circumstances excepted, high wages imply restraints
on population

207

208

6. Due restriction of population the only safeguard of a labouring
class

216

in others the effect of particular customs

CHAPTER XII. Of Popular Remedies for Low Wages.

§1. A legal or customary minimum of wages, with a guarantee of

employment

- would require as a condition, legal measures for repression of

§ 1. Pernicious direction of public opinion on the subject of population
2. Grounds for expecting improvement

218

219

221

223

225
227

3. Twofold means of elevating the habits of the labouring people:
by education

230

4.

-

and by large measures of immediate relief, through foreign and
home colonization

231

-

port

CHAPTER XIV. Of the Differences of Wages in different

Employments.

§ 1. Differences of wages arising from different degrees of attractive-
ness in different employments

2. Differences arising from natural monopolies

3. Effect on wages of a class of subsidized competitors

5. Wages of women, why lower than those of men

233

236

238

4. of the competition of persons with independent means of sup-

240

242

6. Differences of wages arising from restrictive laws, and from combi-

1. Profits resolvable into three parts; interest, insurance, and

wages

of superintendence.

245

2. The minimum of profits; and the variations to which it is liable.

246