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University. The affiliation in the case of these colleges differs in the different institutions. In certain colleges, as at Radcliffe, the entire teaching is given by the staff of the older institution; in others, as in Western Reserve University, a faculty quite separate is provided. This method is based upon the method of Cambridge and of Oxford, as witnessed in Newnham, Girton, Somerville, and other colleges.

These three types of method in the higher education of women are found in all parts of the United States, although the coeducational form is the more common in the West. In New England are found colleges for women alone, for both women and men, and for women and men under the coordinate system. In the Middle West coeducation begins to be more common, and west of the Mississippi it is the prevailing method. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. These advantages and disadvantages spring largely from the fitness or unfitness of a particular method to the needs of the individual student.

The enlarging place which the American university holds in the interest of the American people is indicated in the rapid increase in its endowment and in the facilities of its equipment. The American university has been poor in the poverty of the American people; the American university is now becoming rich in its riches. In the year 1830 the first written statement of the finances of Yale College was made. At that time the entire productive fund, excluding land, amounted to between $30,000 and $31,000. The total income from funds that year was less than $2,700. The following year the receipts from all sources, including tuition, were a little less than $20,000, and the expenses a little more. In 1832 the receipts increased to a few cents more than $20,000, and the expenses had increased to a few dollars more than $23,000. In this year the income from funds was slightly less than $2,600. At the present time the endowment of Yale College exceeds $5.000.000. The whole amount of money received by Harvard during the seventeenth century was slightly in excess of £6,000, and during the eighteenth century aggregated £27,000. In the year 1846 the whole amount of the productive funds of the college was $650,000, and the income derived from all sources was slightly in excess of $45,000. At the present time the productive funds exceed $13,000,000, and are rapidly increasing. In the United States sixteen universities have endowments of between one million dollars and two; four between two millions and four; three between four millions and eight, and three have an endowment above ten millions. Although Harvard and Yale make a somewhat unique appeal to the generosity of benefactors, yet it is to be said every worthy college has in the last half century received a vast addition to its funds. In recent years about $10,000,000 have been annually given to American universities. No cause makes a more wise or a stronger appeal to the hearts of the American people than the American university. All motives for large and lasting beneficence unite in the making of a gift. At the present time the amount of the productive funds held by American universities and colleges has a value of about $150,000,000. Great as this sum is, the auguries indicate that endowments are to become much larger in the forthcoming decades. The value of buildings and grounds and apparatus is also about $150,000,000.

Halfway between the intellectual and material growth of the American university stands its library. It is significant that the foundation of our two oldest and best known colleges is vitally associated with the donation of books, for John Harvard bequeathed not only a part of his small fortune to the college which renders his name illustrious, but also 320 volumes. It is further to be said that the magistrates and ministers of the Bay Colony, out of their own libraries, gave toward the foundation of the college books which are valued at £200. (The Harvard Book, Chap. I, p. 112, article by J. L. Sibley, librarian.) It is a tradition preserved by

President Clap that when the founders of Yale College came together to make a formal establishment they could find no act more fitting with which to represent their purpose than the giving of books for the library. It is also significant that some of the more conspicuous gifts for these two colleges throughout their earlier history were books. The name of Thomas Hollis is one that lives in the Cambridge college in several relations, but among the objects of his benevolence was the library. Beginning with 1720, the date of his earliest benefaction to the library, he sent books and made appeals in behalf of the library to authors, publishers, and corporate bodies. The most valuable gift that the library of Yale ever received up to the first quarter of the present century was a gift of books from Bishop Berkeley. It consisted of about 1,000 volumes, and is judged to have cost about £400. (Yale College, Vol. I, p. 185, article by Addison Van Name, librarian.) That a gift of books was to a degree a constituent factor in the foundation of these two colleges, and not a laying of bricks, is prophetic of the place which the library occupies in an American college two centuries after. In the year 1841 William Gray gave to Harvard College, for the benefit of its library, the sum of $25,000. It was the largest gift of the kind which the college had received up to that time. From the time of the making of these first donations of books to Harvard and to Yale the growth of the college library has been constant and great. The growth of the Harvard library in particular has been most significant. The number of books under the control of this university exceeds 600,000. But it must be confessed that the libraries of most colleges are inadequately furnished and inefficiently administered. As one looks over the statistics of American universities he reads such figures as, for one college, 5.000 volumes; for another, 1,000, for another, 25,000, and for another, 50,000 volumes. About one-half of all the books in college libraries are found in institutions of the north Atlantic, and about 35 per cent in institutions of the north central division of States. In an address given at the convocation of the University of Chicago, at the beginning of the year of 1895, Seth Low said that the growth of the library has three stages: The first is found in the collection of books; the second, in the making books accessible; and, third, in the causing books to be the creators of other books. These three stages in particular belong to the library of the university. Above every other form of library the library of the university represents a continued thread of knowledge, uniting the past, the present, and the future.

The architecture of the American university represents all forms-and, it must be added, no form-of design and of construction. Although the first colleges were in point of course of study based upon the English model, yet their buildings adopted a new type. What is known as colonial architecture seems to have been quite as natural to the colonists for their academic and administration buildings as was the round arch to the Roman or the architrave to the Greek builder. As the Oxford and Cambridge colleges had close relation to cloister foundations, and as the new colleges of America followed out the religious purpose, it might be supposed that the cloister would represent the American type. But usually the buildings of the early American colleges were placed in a row and not in a quadrangle. The first college buildings were adaptations and enlargements of the forms of buildings used for dwelling houses and for warehouses. The earlier buildings were built not about a square, but in a row, as at Yale, Williams, Amherst, Bowdoin, and Hudson, Ohio. The three earlier buildings of Dartmouth were placed in a line, although the fourth building interrupted this arrangement. This simple type and method prevailed on the whole into the second quarter of the nineteenth century. At this time a new influence appeared. This influence was the Greek or the classical form. Its most conspicuous illustration is found in the creation of Jefferson in the University of Virginia and in the main building of Girard College, at Philadelphia. The Philadelphia structure, erected between

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1833 and 1847, conforms in many respects to the Parthenon, although the columns are Corinthian and not Doric.

Following the dominance of the Greek type, the Gothic emerged. This influence arose from the interest of the people in the Middle Ages. Yale College in the last fifty years represents more significantly the presence of Gothic architecture than any other. Its first building of this form was the library, built in 1843-1846. From that time to the present some dozen buildings have been built in the Gothic style.

The finest illustration of Romanesque which America offers is seen in the buildings of the Leland Stanford Junior University. These buildings might probably be called a Romanesque-Oxford. The form is quadrangular, and the type is of the monastic cloister.

Throughout the last hundred years no one type or form of architecture has commonly prevailed. Gothic, Romanesque, colonial, and Greek are intermingled on the same college campus. For the college chapel the Gothic type has, on the whole, proved to be more popular. For the college library many forms have been used. For the college lecture or recitation room it must be confessed that a mixed design has proved more acceptable. For the laboratories, as of chemistry, physics, biology, and geology, are also found many types, from the colonial to the Romanesque and Gothic. The type of architecture fitted for a scientific laboratory still awaits formulation.

The reason for the vastness of diversity and the incongruity of structures arises from several causes. One cause is found in the individuality of donors of buildings; one cause also lies in the lack of attention on the part of governing boards to the proper placing of buildings and in the lack of a reasonable knowledge of architectural design and construction. Boards of trust have, on the whole, been too indulgent to the individual preferences or prejudices of donors of buildings, and also too indulgent toward their own architectural ignorances and shortcomings.

In the development of the American university the life of the undergraduates has become highly organized. Whether students live together in dormitories-a method prevailing more in the institutions of the East than of the West-or in private lodgings, their life is subject to many and diverse relations. Outside of fraternities, of which distinct mention is to be presently made, clubs and societies of all sorts are formed. In such universities as Yale and Harvard no less than fifty undergraduate organizations are formed. They are formed for purposes most diverse and with constituencies large or small, compact or loose, homogeneous or heterogeneous. Clubs political, musical, literary, social, dramatic, debating, religious, æsthetic, and athletic of all kinds, from tennis and football to revolver, are the more common.

The athletic organization of undergraduate life has become the most significant of all forms. The beginnings of such organization appeared about sixty years ago. As early as 1840 football was played at Yale, but it was as then played largely a scrimmage between the sophomore class and the freshman. For the next thirty years the game was played with much irregularity, both in time and method. It was not till the year of 1873 that an intercollegiate league was formed. The. members of the class of 1844 at Yale and of 1846 at Harvard formed the first boat. clubs in those colleges; and in 1852 Yale challenged Harvard to a race, which was rowed on Lake Winnepesaukee on August 3, in which the challenging college was defeated. Baseball was introduced at Yale in 1859, and at Harvard three years later. Harvard played her first intercollegiate game with Brown in 1863, and Yale her first intercollegiate game with Wesleyan in 1865, and the first Harvard-Yale game dates from July 25, 1868.

From these simple origins the three great college sports have so progressed

that they now occupy no small part of the emotional interest of undergraduates and absorb easily their more superficial enthusiasms. These games represent, too, the point where the public, through the newspaper, most readily touches undergraduate life and affairs.

There are other distinct concrete features of the American university which should be included in this sketch. Among them are the alumni associations, the system of fraternities, and the university clubs.

The alumni association of a college is simply a society of its graduates. In certain cases it is incorporated; in more, not. It represents those who have received a degree from the institution. Its chief meeting is at the annual commencement time, its chief business making vital the relationship of the graduates with their college. Every association of this sort is of direct and important support to the college. Its members either individually or as a body are among the benefactors, and its interest never ceases in "alma mater."

The association of students with each other is a constant form of university life throughout the world. At Upsala it takes the form of the nation's houses; in Germany, of corps of various forms; in Oxford and Cambridge, of the fellowship of the common room, and in America, of the fraternity. In American colleges and universities of conspicuous power and place are some thirty different fraternities. They enroll among their graduates and undergraduates more than 100,000 members. The largest of them has a membership of 15,000. Each society represents a common fellowship in each college. Each society of its name in one college represents cooperation with other branches of the same name in other colleges. The fraternity system is a vital and lasting force in academic life and personal character. Through the fraternity the graduate members keep in touch with the undergraduates and with the university. The fraternity represents a mighty force in college order and organization. It has been suggested that the fraternities in different colleges might become the foundation of the English college and university system in America. Recent developments, however, give no evidence of such a result.

It should also be said that what are known as university clubs are found in each of the great cities. These clubs are an association of gentlemen who have received degrees from universities, either American or foreign. These societies are primarily social, and secondarily are remotely scholastic. In these clubs in America are probably enrolled not less than 7,000 members, and they hold property of at least a million dollars. The university club in America represents the point at which the university life touches the communal life and also the point at which the life of the community may put itself in touch with the relations of the higher education.

I have so far considered the history of American universities largely as independent foundations and monuments. But these universities do not exist for their own sake. They represent important functions in the American community and in the American commonwealth. To a few of these functions I wish to refer.

One function of a university in a democracy is the promotion of the unity of the intellectual life. In a prosperous democracy the tendency is strong to break with all the past. A prosperous democracy desires to make all things new, for it is in peril of becoming intoxicated with its own past triumphs. In this condition the university stands as the preacher of conservatism. It draws from the past its experiences for the enrichment and ennoblement of the present. It declares that man is still man in all times. The value of the university in promoting the oneness of the intellectual life through conservatism it is hard too highly to esteem. The peril of the democracy is that in breaking with the past it will speedily enter into intellectual bankruptcy. It seeks to pay intellectual demands with drafts on the emotions. In respect to intellectual conservatism, promoting unity, the uni

versity represents the great law of evolution; the present receiving the past, and the future receiving what is now the present-enlarging, enriching, and developing it. The university also represents the intellectual oneness of the community through its own unities and associations. A democracy tends toward disintegration-the centrifugal tendency is stronger than the centripetal. Institutions of different classes and of different sections war against each other. Universities, through the associations of the student body, as seen in fraternities, debating leagues, political organizations, and scholastic associations, tend to unite all parts of the diverse democratic body.

The relation, too, of the American university to the American democracy concerns what may be called spiritual ideals. This relation is of large and of serious worth. It applies to and for itself the laws of self-preservation. That its own integrity may be assured, it is inclined to be content with the customary and the commonplace. The relationship content with the positive is not apt to end with the superlative or even to reach the comparative. Democracy seeks the greatest good for the greatest number, as it ought, but in this seeking it is inclined to consider the greatest number of the present time and to take no cognizance of the yet greater number of the future.

Every great nation and every great age devotes itself to some supreme object. In the Hebrew time and nation its devotion was to religion; in the Greek, to literature and art; in Roman, to law and to empire; in mediæval Italy it was to the church; in America it is, or was, to liberty. But at present the American commonwealth seems to find its chief ambition in the making of power through material forces. This ambition emphasizes the fact that a democratic and prosperous people does need the constant inspiration of the highest ideals---a constant incoming of strength other than material. It is inclined to allow a material contentment to satisfy the desire for a higher enrichment. Therefore a democratic people needs the constant inspiration of highest ideals and the constant supply of the strongest strengths. This filling of its needs is most efficiently done by the university. Itself seeking the highest ideals, untouched by selfishness, the university is able to move democratic communities unto the highest and the best. The university should constantly keep before the democratic community the duty of a love for truth, of a love for moral excellence, and an appreciation of the beautiful. The appreciation of beauty exercises itself in the fine arts. A political democracy is prone to make its fine arts merely decorative. It is hard to teach or to convince people that the fine arts minister to the highest education of man. The university, however, through both teaching and example should impress upon the democratic community that painting and poetry, architecture, sculpture, and music represent fundamental desires, passions, and needs of the human character. It should also show to the community that such ideas as truth, sincerity, purity, and honesty are most impressively embodied for the benefit of humanity on the canvas and in the marble. But, be it said that the worth of the fine arts in a democracy is not so great as the worth of a university, which not simply inspires an appreciation of the fine arts, but also arouses and quickens the love for truth and the love for moral excellence.

Among the most important spiritual ideals and conditions of a democracy is literature.

The relation of the university of a democracy to the literature of a democracy is at once of general and of particular import. The relation is not simply that the university gives an education to poet, essayist, historian, although this relation is significant. For one does not forget that if Shakespeare was trained as an actor and not as a student the names of his contemporaries, even if less great, and of his successors are found in the matriculation registers of the English universities. With the exception, too, of Heine, who has left on record his contempt of uni

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