The chief matters coming under notice are:

1. Notification by teachers and control by individual exclusion, class or school closure in cases of infectious diseases.

2. Examination of teachers, candidates, or employees in regard to health.

3. Other matters referred to the medical officer by committees.

4. The examination of defective children is also carried on by the medical officer and his staff, but not under the supervision of the department.

Thus far, according to the official report, little has been attempted in respect to "(a) condition of schools-ventilation, heating, lighting, furniture; (b) physical conditions of children-measurements, nutrition, vision, hearing; (c) school work and methods in their hygienic bearing."

The board has issued a report of an elaborate experiment in the testing of children's eyesight, and a report of the effect of school life in the spread of diphtheria. The latter report has led to special efforts for the discovery of the incipient stages of the disease and the prevention of its spread.

In the light of this partial survey of the great and varied responsibilities of the London board, it is easy to understand why the county council has strenuously objected to the new law and the earnest stand made by men of opposite political views for the maintenance of the present system of school administration in the metropolis.

CHAPTER V.

AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES.

By CHARLES F. THWING, LL. D.,

President of Western Reserve University and Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio.

CONTENTS.

The first colleges-Harvard-William and Mary-Yale, and other colleges-English influenco in studies and gifts-French influence-German influence-Ecclesiastical, private, and public foundations-The three methods cooperating-Growth of a national educational spirit-State universities-Governing boards-Professional schools-Graduate schools-Growth of course of study-Elective system-Education of women-Increase of endowment-Libraries-Architecture-Life of undergraduates-Athletics-Alumni associations-Fraternities-University clubsThe university and the unity of the intellectual life-Practical ideals-Literature-ResearchThe university and the formal government-Relation of the university to (a) the scholar, (b) the thinker, (c) the gentleman, (d) public service.

The first force, in time as well as in influence, contributing to the planting and growth of American universities was the English. Among the 21,000 persons who came to New England from 1620 to 1640, the date of the assembling of the Long Parliament, which gave ground for hope that the purposes which promoted emigration might be accomplished in England itself, were about 100 graduates of Cambridge and Oxford. This proportion of 1 graduate to about 200 of population was as large as prevailed in any country in the seventeenth century. These men brought with them such college standards and methods as they had known. Harvard College, founded in 1636, and which for more than fifty years remained the only college in America, was largely the product of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Emmanuel was a Puritan foundation, made by Sir Walter Mildmay in 1584. It is told that Sir Walter, who was the chancellor of the exchequer of Queen Elizabeth, was asked by the great Queen regarding the Puritan foundation. He is said to have replied: "No, madam, far be it from me to countenance anything contrary to your established laws, but I have set an acorn which, when it becomes an oak, God alone knows what will be the fruit thereof." From the acorn thus planted sprang the first college of America, and so, in a degree, many other colleges in the following generations.

John Cotton, Thomas Shepard, of Cambridge, and Thomas Hooker, builders of the early Massachusetts Commonwealth, were graduates of Cambridge and of Emmanuel. From Magdalen came the first president of Harvard College, Henry Dunster; from Trinity, Charles Chauncy, the second president; from Peterhouse came John Norton, the interpreter of the doctrine and discipline of the church; from Trinity also came the leader of the Bay colony, John Winthrop; from Jesus came the apostle to the Indians, John Eliot; from Emmanuel came, above all others, John Harvard, who, through his books and a gift of half of his estate, though small, became the founder in a peculiar sense of the college in the new Cambridge. It may be added that the larger number of college-bred men of the New England colonies were found in Massachusetts Bay. Of the 100 souls who came over in the Mayflower not one had received a college degree. Elder Brewster was the only liberally educated man in the company, but his education had not

covered the full university period. The relation between the old Cambridge and the higher education in America therefore is a relation definite, vital, and for many years dominant.

Although seventeen years before Harvard College was established endeavors had been made to found a college in Virginia, it was not until 1693 that a permanent charter was obtained. Even then it was not obtained without opposition. It is told that when the Rev. Dr. James Blair, a Scottish Episcopal clergyman, the founder of the college, went to Attorney-General Seymour with the royal command to prepare a charter, he was met by remonstrances against the expensive liberality, Seymour declaring he saw no occasion for a college in Virginia. Doctor Blair replied that ministers of the church were needed there, as the people of Virginia had souls as well as those of England, and that a college was necessary to educate them. "Souls!" exclaimed Seymur in reply, "damn their souls! Let them make tobacco." But the charter was soon granted, and the college entered upon a career of prosperity which, with certain lapses, it enjoyed down to the Revolutionary war.

The foundation of Yale College in the first year of the eighteenth century was likewise the result of a long-continued endeavor. As early as 1648, ten years after the beginning of the New Haven colony, steps, which proved to be ineffective, were taken for the starting of a college. More than fifty years elapsed before the actual foundation was made. In the first year of the eighteenth century a few ministers of the colony petitioned the authorities for a charter, and also engaged to give from their own libraries books for its endowment. The charter as granted indicated a desire to uphold and propagate the Christian Protestant religion by a succession of learned and orthodox men. It also expressed the wish that the youth might be instructed in the arts and sciences and might, through the blessing of Almighty God, be fitted for employment both in church and state.

Almost fifty years passed after the foundation of Yale before the establishment of another college. In 1746 Princeton, in 1754 Columbia University, in 1757 the University of Pennsylvania, in 1764 Brown University, in 1766 Rutgers, in 1770 Dartmouth, represent the noble succession.

These six colleges, together with Harvard, William and Mary, and Yale, were largely the product of the church. Harvard College was founded largely for the purpose of maintaining a creed and for the education of ministers. Of its 76 graduates between 1642 and 1656 at least 59 became ministers. Indeed, of all the graduates down to 1700 more than half were clergymen. A similar proportion prevailed at Yale for its first half century. The chief aim of the founders and early friends of Princeton was to furnish the church, and especially their own branch of it, the Presbyterian, with able ministers. Their secondary purpose was to provide a liberal education for all classes. Columbia had for its first governors ministers of the Church of England and also of the Presbyterian, Lutheran, Dutch Reformed, and the French Protestant churches; and its first class of 8 students was taught in the vestry room of the schoolhouse attached to Trinity Church. In the organization of Brown University the Baptist Church and in the organization of Rutgers College the Dutch Reformed exercised a controlling influence. In the charter of Rutgers it is affirmed that it was founded for the education of youth in the learned languages, liberal arts and sciences, and especially in divinity, preparing them for the ministry and other good offices. The planting of Dartmouth was the result of the great religious growth of the first half of the eighteenth century. Eleazar Wheelock, its founder, was moved both as a Christian and as a philanthropist in laying its foundation.

In the establishment, therefore, of the nine colleges planted before the outbreak of the Revolutionary war English conditions prevailed. The motives, too, were religious or ecclesiastical. In most cases the motives were sectarian, but with

the narrower motive was mingled a large human purpose. Religion was used as a method for the betterment of men and for the glory of God," as well as to promote denominational enlargement.

The course of study of these colleges, moreover, was, like their formal origin, English. In the first third of the seventeenth century the course of study in the English universities consisted largely of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, rhetoric, philosophy, and logic. Mathematics occupied a very subordinate place. The course of study in the American institutions was largely a transcript of the course in the English universities. In addition to the three ancient languages, logic, ethics, and rhetoric, together with arithmetic and geometry, were the chief subjects. The Bible, both in the Hebrew and the Greek as well as in the English, seems to have held a high place. For a century and a half after the foundation of Harvard College the ancient languages, together with philosophical and rhetorical studies, occupied the greater share of the students' attention. The changes made in the curriculum of American colleges down to the close of the Revolutionary war from the order that was first established at Harvard in 1636 were not so great as are now made in the same colleges in the course of a single decade.

The endowments of these colleges, moreover, in no small degree sprang from English sources. The trans-Atlantic benefactions to the oldest American college are mainly confined to its first century. Its cash donations in the seventeenth century slightly exceed £7,000, and nearly two-sevenths of the amount came from England. Soon after its founding Lady Moulson contributed £100 for scholarships. The bequest of Sir Matthew Holworthy, £1,000, was the largest single gift received in the seventeenth century. Theophilus Gale, a distinguished clergyman who died in 1677, gave to Harvard College one-half his library, which for many years constituted more than half the college library. Sir Robert Thorner, by his will dated in 1690, bequeathed £500, and William Pennoyer, twenty years before, gave an annuity of £44, which now forms the Pennoyer scholarships. To these benefactors are to be added those who, though less munificent, are of more distinguished fame, as Sir Kenelm Digby, Sir Thomas Temple, Sir Henry Ashurst, and John Dodderidge. But the most generous benefactor in the first century of the college, on either side of the ocean, was the first Thomas Hollis. His donations began in 1719, and within seven years amounted to £4,840. His benefactions in the establishment of two professorships and other foundations are the largest made in the first hundred years. Indeed, so constant and so necessary was the dependence of the college upon English donations that till near the beginning of the eighteenth century it employed an agent residing in Great Britain to solicit and remit funds. It is worthy of note that in 1780 the corporation passed a special vote enrolling John Mico, of London, among the benefactors of the college, in recognition of his services as its English agent during more than forty years for which he refused compensation.

William and Mary College was, down to the Revolution, as much an English as an American college. Its chancellors were the Bishops of London and its presidents the representatives of those bishops in the Virginia colony. Its endowment as well as its charter was more royal than obtained in the case of most colleges. Nearly £2,000 from the quitrents of the colony, 1d. a pound on all tobacco exported from Virginia and Maryland, 20,000 acres of land, and the income of the office of surveyor-general of Virginia were granted it. Down to the Revolution it continued to be the richest college in the country; but in 1776, in consequence of the depreciation of paper money, it lost the principal portion of its endowment.

As William and Mary was among the most thoroughly English of colleges in its establishment, so Yale was among those most entirely American. Its chief donation from over the ocean was received from Dean Berkeley, and was prompted undoubtedly by his knowledge of the college gained during his residence in Newport. On his return to England, after the failure of his scheme to found a mis

sionary training school in the Bermudas, he conveyed to the trustees a deed of his farm at Newport and also sent a thousand volumes to the library, which, in the opinion of President Clap, was the finest collection of books which had ever been brought to America at one time." For more than one hundred and fifty years the results of his beneficence have enriched Yale life.

In the seventh decade of the eighteenth century England made its largest contribution in aid of American colleges. When its Government was deciding that "it is just and necessary that a revenue be raised in America for defraying the expenses of defending, protecting, and securing the same," the agents of the colleges in America were besieging the ministry for a "brief" to aid in raising funds and were canvassing every city and large parish on the island. They succeeded better in their scheme than did the Government in its legislation. The University of Pennsylvania, Columbia (then King's College), Dartmouth, and Brown University received large donations. The representatives of the Pennsylvania and New York colleges, who chanced to be in England together in 1762, divided the country between them and by personal solicitation raised about £2,500. The contributors-more than 800-embraced those in every condition of life. The King gave £200, and the Princess Dowager of Wales £100. The archbishops, all the bishops, and many of the clergy contributed. The Duke of Devonshire, the Duke of Newcastle, the Duchess of Argyle, and a large proportion of the nobility made liberal donations. Pitt gave £50, the University of Cambridge £163, and the University of Oxford £3 more than Cambridge. The "brief money," collected under the letters patent of the council from fully 11,000 persons, exceeded £9,600.

But more richly than either the Pennsylvania or the New York institution did Dartmouth profit by the liberality of the Englishmen. Dr. Eleazar Wheelock, desiring to place on a firm basis a school for the Indians which he had founded, and finding it difficult to raise money in the colonies, determined to apply to England for aid. From this school arose Dartmouth College. The Rev. Nathaniel Whittaker, of Norwich, and Occum, the Indian preacher, were prevailed upon to solicit funds. They reached London in 1766. Occum, be it said, was the first native preacher who ever visited England, and was considered a fair example of what the Indian might become under Christian influence. His preaching and that of Mr. Whittaker aroused a deep and extended influence in behalf of the purpose of their mission. The King gave, as he had already given to Columbia and the Pennsylvania University, £200. Nearly £11,000 were raised. Lord Dartmouth, more distinguished for his generosity and piety than for his intellectual powers, was most efficient in promoting the undertaking, an efficiency which was at once recognized by assigning the name of his earldom to the college. Onethird of the fund was collected in Scotland, and was placed in the charge of the Scotch Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. The remainder was vested in a body of trustees, of which the Earl of Dartmouth was president. The entire proceeds, however, were soon consumed. In 1775 they had become exhausted, and only the gift of the Hon. John Phillips of £1,000 rescued the college from the brink of ruin.

In the year in which Whittaker and Occum reached London an agent of Brown University was appointed to solicit funds in England and Ireland. His success was not as great as that won by the representatives of either Dartmouth, Columbia, or Pennsylvania. He obtained only £900.

At two periods of its early need has the College of New Jersey turned to England for assistance. In 1753 and 1754 two representatives of the trustees made a canvass lasting about a year, which was thoroughly successful. The exact amount collected is not known, but it was so great that the trustees ventured to erect what was then the largest stone building in America. At the close of the war of the