acteristic of the education department. It has limited itself to the duties of dispensing the Government grant and of criticising the results obtained in the schools; but for any initiative, any well-ordered scheme for the improvement of educational efficiency, it was necessary, until within the last few years, to look not to the department, but to the school boards and to independent enthusiasts for educational progress. The evil arising from the lack of coordination in subjects of instruction has been to a great extent remedied by the code for 1900, which has for the first time introduced a "course of instruction" for elementary schools. IV. Compulsion.-The schools having thus been established and staffed, the next question for consideration was whether the children who failed to make use of them should be compelled to attend, and, if so, by what machinery. This, with the exception of the question of religious instruction, was the most delicate point which the board was called upon to decide. Many ardent educationists doubted the wisdom of enforcing education by compulsion, and more feared that parents would resent its application as a new and intolerable limitation of their liberty. V. Industrial schools.-The education acts conferred upon the school board powers to deal with the class of children who are vagrants and are in danger of falling into criminal courses. The education of these children had been provided for by statute some four years previous to the passing of the education act, and certain powers under the industrial schools act of 1866 were conferred upon the board. It was manifestly convenient that the education authority of any district should have control over the education of the waifs and strays of that district, although it had to be conducted in institutions other than the public elementary school. Subsequent developments of the law and of administrative practice have made industrial schools auxiliary to the work of compulsion. The habitual truant is committed to a school conducted under the industrial schools act, called a "truant school." After a short period of detention he is licensed out on the condition that he attends school with regularity. A breach of the condition involves recommitment to the truant school.

VI. Finance.-The last branch of the board's work which remains for consideration is the sources from which its income is derived, the methods by which such income is raised, and the control which is imposed upon its expenditure.

As to the spirit and the methods in which the problem thus analyzed was met it is enough to quote the testimony of Doctor Macnamara, M. P.:

*

The first two boards laid down the main line of policy on broad and progressive educational lines. The religious difficulty was solved by a happy compromise, to which churchman and nonconformist-like Prebendary Thorold and Doctor Angus-and Tory and Liberal-like Mr. W. H. Smith and Mr. Samuel Morleygave complete and satisfied adherence. * * Scales of salaries were laid down that secured for London the best the training colleges for teachers could furnish, and schemes of staffing and of instruction were put on the stocks in a way that would not have done discredit to the most enlightened educationalism of thirty years later.

The policies of the board have been widely copied and it has led in many important educational reforms.

The best tribute to its history [says Doctor Macnamara] is the fact that, go where you will, up and down the country and out of it, you will find some of its syllabuses and regulations in force. Its Scripture syllabus is particularly famous, being now in actual operation in many parts of the British Empire. So, too, with its classical-I use the word advisedly-schemes of instruction in physical training, in domestic economy, and so on. They are the standard works in these subjects all the country over. Its code and regulations for local managers has long since become the recognized official guide. Already quite a number of the new educational authorities under the education act of last year have issued codes of regulations for managers confessedly based upon the voluminous and strikingly able set of resolutions issued by the London board. Every year sees scores of distinguished visitors and deputations from the educational worlds of the States, our colonies, and the Continent busy with notebook in hand in the board schools of London.

The care of the mentally and physically deficient children; the problem of how to meet the cases of those unhappy little ones whom hard necessity drives to school daily in an ill-fed condition; the administration of the compulsory attendance by-laws, and the development of evening school work, these and a hundred other problems of first-class importance have been dealt with nowhere with greater care, assiduity, and success than under the London school board. The

teaching of swimming to both boys and girls has always been a feature of London school-board work, and tens of thousands of young Londoners hold the board's certificate of proficiency. One little chap down East Lambeth way has already saved six lives as a result of his board-school teaching. Scripture teaching, too, has always reached a very high standard under the London school board, stimulated, no doubt, by the admirable “Peek" prizes. Though the scholarships" and "bursaries" at the board's disposal have not been many, yet its sons have found their way to wranglerships and the university-honors lists of most of the British universities. Many, too, have won their way to fine positions in professional and commercial life. Indeed, the result would astonish some good people could we but put the letters "L. S. B." in a directory after the names of all London citizens who began life in the humble board school.

To facilitate the enormous work which devolved upon it, the London board was early organized in 7 standing committees and 26 subcommittees. There were formed also committees of members for each of the 11 electoral divisions of the metropolis who should nominate (1) the visitors (about 324 in number) employed to look after the school attendance of the children of their respective districts, and (2) the local school managers, numbering about 3,000. The appointment of such managers was authorized by the education law of 1870, and to them the school boards might delegate any of their powers excepting that of raising money. The appointment became necessary when private schools were transferred to a school board as a means of preserving the continuity of their supervision. It will be observed that the law of 1902 and the new law for London both provide for the continuance of this policy.

The London board has employed further 8 inspectors, 11 superintendents, 3 medical inspectors, a large clerical force, and a large number of special instructors and examiners in addition to the regular teaching staff. This mere enumeration of duties and responsible agents serves to illustrate the enormous work that has been added to the heavily burdened county council by the new law.

The latest official report of the board brings the history of its operations to the 25th of March, 1902. What has been accomplished in respect to collecting the statistics of the child population of the metropolis, of the schools, and securing school attendance is summarized in the following comparative table:

Statistics of elementary schools of London.

The board had under its charge in 1901-2 501 ordinary schools, comprising 414 departments for boys, 440 for girls, 83 mixed departments, and 483 departments for infants (i. e., children under 7 years of age). The number of special schools, or centers, as they are termed, is given in a table below.

With respect to the enrollment (i. e.,546,370) and average attendance (462,840) in the ordinary board schools the school-management committee report that the increase in both particulars for the year 1902 was greater than in any year for the last seven years. The increase in average attendance is said to be due chiefly to the efforts of the teachers. The increase in enrollment is attributed to the operation of the new by-laws, which raised the higher limit of age for compulsory attendance to 14 years, abolished half-time attendance, and raised the maximum penalty for violation of the law to 20s. Under the law no children under 14 years of age can claim exemption from school attendance unless they pass examination in standard VII. The effect of these new requirements has been to prolong school life, as is clearly shown by the fact that, while the number of children between 3 and 14 years of age scheduled in the metropolitan county has diminished, there has been a marked and disproportionate increase in the number between 13 and 14 enrolled in school.

It might have been expected [says the committee] that the numbers in standards from V upward would have been equalized in approximately the same degree as the numbers of the ages from 10 upward. Such, however, does not appear from the classification of the pupils. The age percentages now as compared with those of 1892 are as follows:

whereas the standards (grades) percentages now as compared with those of 1892

Six children out of every seven who are in school at 10 years of age stay on until 14. But one-sixth of those who reach standard IV do not reach standard V, onethird of those who reach standard V do not reach standard VI, and nearly one-half of those who reach standard VI do not reach standard VII.

With respect to teachers the school-management committee report as follows, the bracketed figures being for the previous year:

The teaching staff of the ordinary schools and of the higher grade and higher elementary schools consisted on the 25th of March of 11,235 [10,823] members. Of this number, 484 [465] were head masters, 942 [917] head mistresses, 3.122 [3,007] assistant masters, including 120 [97] "supply" and 23 [20] unattached teachers; 6,228 [5,992] assistant mistresses, including 424 [304] supply" and 138 [110] unattached teachers; 459 [442] ex-pupil teachers, 2,282 [2,272] pupil teachers and probationers. The increase in the permanent staff was 44 head teachers, 351 assistant teachers (men and women), including unattached and ** supply teachers, 17 ex-pupil teachers, and 10 pupil teachers and probationers. Of the adult staffi. e., all not pupil teachers, including unattached and "supply" teachers-82.2 per cent were trained.

In 1892 the ratio of head teachers to assistants, (including half the “supplies ") and ex-pupil teachers was 1 to 5.2. It is now 1 to 6.7. This relative decline in the number of heads or principals is largely due to the diminution of the size of

the classes, which in 1892 was 50 children in average attendance for each adult teacher, whereas in March last it was 42.3.

a

The number of children to each adult teacher (including half the "supplies ") in the senior departments in 1892 was 48.2, and it is now 40.8, and in infant schools in 1892 it was 53. Land at present 45.4. The average number of children to each teacher is further lessened by the periodical absence of children at various centers-e. g., manual training, cookery, laundry, housewifery, art, etc.

There has been a slight increase in the ratio of women teachers to men teachers. In 1892 it was 1.9: 1; now it is 2:1.

The average rates of salaries at Lady Day, 1892, 1901, and 1902 were:

These figures do not include supply teachers and unattached teachers, but they do include several cases of teachers in receipt of "commuted" salaries—i. e., salaries based on the scale that was in operation down to 1883 plus a portion of the Government grant. The new scale, which was adopted by the board in March, 1899, provides for a higher maximum salary for assistant teachers, and the average salaries paid under that scale may be expected to rise for some years at a slow and decreasing rate.

SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION.

The extension of the school programme beyond the three R's is shown by the following citations from the official report:

I. Specific subjects.—The board no longer receive the precise information with regard to the noncompulsory subjects taken in their schools which used to be provided by the old returns of "class" and "specific" grants. The old class subjects-viz, English, geography, elementary science, history, and needlework-are now compulsory in all schools, although the time given and the standard aimed at in various subjects may differ greatly in individual schools. The old "specific" subjects are still optional, and the board, when the "specific" subjects grant was abolished (February, 1901), required all schools to send in at the end of the school year a return of the "specific" subjects taken. The return for 1902 reveals the interesting fact that the number of scholars who on the last day of the school year in each case were under instruction in special subjects as compared with the passes or presentations," on which grant was allowed in the year 1898, the last year in which the old system of examination for specifics was in full operation, had increased from 53,701 to 160,382. This increase, says the report, has taken place in spite of the fact that the instruction represented by the 12,000 odd presentations in domestic economy has practically disappeared from the ordinary school time-table, the subjects being now dealt with in the domestic-subjects centers. The increase varies in the different subjects, the largest being in French, from 4,888 to 42,529, while the other subjects in which considerable increases have taken place are algebra, from 9,963 to 29.438; science (including physics, chemistry, etc.), from 3,582 to 23.935; animal physiology, from 5,650 to 12.253; botany, from 1,422 to 8.710; mechanics, from 12,652 to 16,694; shorthand, from 1,916 to 5.811; hygiene, from 226 to 3,096.

It should be remembered that previously to the introduction of the block grant system the special or specific subjects could be taken only by standard V and upward, whereas under the new conditions special subjects may be and often are taken much lower down in the school.

During the intermediate period between 1898 and 1902 a grant was paid for "specific" subjects on the number of units of completed twenty-four hours of instruction. Complete returns on this basis were given for two years, 18991900 and 1900-1901, the year 1899 being the transition year. It is difficult to compare these years either with 1898 or 1902, but they seem to show, e. g., that the

a If pupil teachers were included the average would be less.

rapid increase in French began in 1900, and the increase in that subject between 1901 and 1902 was much the greatest of all.

II. Manual training and domestic economy.-There were 180 [173] manual training centers, 4 [4] being metal-work centers, grant being allowed upon 39,608 [36,772] scholars; 186 [185] cookery centers, at which 25,759 [33.882] girls finished a course for the cookery grant; 139 [127] laundry centers, at which 17,578 [16,599] girls finished a course for the laundry grant, and 22 [20] housewifery centers, at which 10,788 girls commenced a course of instruction in the year ended March,

1902.

The extension of manual training, cookery, and laundry since 1893 shows, by the following statistics, the number of boys receiving instruction in manual training in 1893 was 4,340, and in 1902, 53,664. Girls instructed in 1893, in cookery, 31,199; in laundry, 3,939; and in 1902, in cookery, 25,759; in laundry, 17,578.

It is not probable that any large increase in the number of cookery centers will be necessary to meet the requirements of the present school ordinary accommodation. The syllabus of instruction in domestic subjects adopted by the board contemplates an equal amount of time being given to the subjects of cookery and laundry work. As the accommodation for instruction in laundry work is not equal to the amount of accommodation provided for instruction in cookery, it follows that a further, though not large, increase in the number of laundry centers may be expected.

Housewifery is a comparatively new subject, and the policy of the board with regard to an increase of accommodation has not yet been declared.

III. Science and art.-The period covered by the present report-March, 1901, to March, 1902-includes a few months in 1901 during which instruction in science and art, under the regulations of the South Kensington branch of the board of education, was continued in some of our day schools. The number of attendances earning rank in various subjects was 237,312 [315,5104]. The number of individual students presented in the science section was 507 [1,077], and in the art section 446 [1,326]. This was the winding-up year, and the figures, as will be seen, are very much lower than in the preceding year.

IV. Scripture.-The annual examination in Scripture for the prizes given by Mr. Francis Peek and the Religious Tract Society was held in June, 1901. Six thousand one hundred and forty-eight scholars and 564 pupil-teachers sat at this examination, the corresponding numbers for the previous year being 6,055 scholars and 2,636 pupil-teachers. Prizes were awarded to 2,957 scholars and to 301 pupil

teachers.

V. Swimming.-Instruction in swimming is also provided by the board in baths belonging to the local authorities and in two cases in baths belonging to the board. The board have hitherto appointed only one teacher of swimming. During the year 44,354 scholars received instruction and 14,330 learned to swim.

VI. Special teachers.—The board further employ special teachers for certain subjects in the school time-tables. When this instruction requires but little apparatus, the teachers are usually peripatetic, going from one school to another. When the subject requires such fixed apparatus, the special teachers are usually attached to centers attended by children from several schools. The peripatetic teachers are employed for French (28 [20 in 1901] teachers), German (1 [1] teacher), drawing (81 [69] teachers, including some who teach in art rooms used as centers for several schools), and science. The peripatetic teachers have rapidly increased since 1892, when there were 7 such teachers for science, and the teachers of domestic subjects have increased from 131 to 345 in the same period. This last does not include the special teachers who are solely attached to one school-those, for example, in charge of chemical and physical laboratories and others in higher elementary and higher grade schools. In some cases the schools are organized so that the ordinary staff divide up the various subjects of instruction between them, each subject being assigned as far as possible to the teacher most qualified to deal with it.

VII. Displays and exhibitions. For the encouragement of physical education and music displays are periodically held. The display of 1901 was a display of drill and physical exercises.

The central exhibition of the year under consideration was the twenty-fifth exhibition of the kind. In addition to this exhibition, there have been held, at the request of the divisional members, local exhibitions in the tower hamlets and in Southwark, at which the work of the board's schools in the locality has been exhibited. A separate exhibition was also held of scientific apparatus made by the teachers and scholars.

VIII. Local history lectures.-Lectures on local history are given in the town halls on the history and the traditions of the borough. During the last winter