In drawing conclusions from these data it should be remembered that the mean level for each year is derived from 365 observations, while the corresponding flood level and lowest water level are each determined by the records of only a few days, and are especially subject to exceptional variations. The mean levels are therefore entitled to the greater weight. Moreover, the highest and lowest points reached throw little or no light upon the durations of the corresponding high water and low water stages of the river, which are vital elements in estimating the discharge, and hence the general hydraulic conditions affecting the district.

The figures in the table indicate a pronounced lowering of the mean, of the flood, and of the low-water stages of these rivers, but that caution should be observed not to misinterpret the apparent flood change as implying a reduction of flood volume, or even of extreme flood height, is shown by the following quotation from Wex:

The plots of the gauge readings show that in these rivers [the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, Vistula, and Ŏder] the floods in recent periods occur oftener and rise higher than in former times. It follows clearly, then, that during flood stages the discharge is much greater than formerly. These plots show further that the earlier floods were more regular than those of the later decades, in which excessive heights in one year are followed by very moderate heights in another, thus proving that very wet and very dry seasons occur more frequently and show greater variations than formerly. This is particularly noticeable for the Elbe and Vistula.

What conclusions are, then, to be drawn from these data in regard to the influence of forests upon climate and stream flow? They certainly demonstrate a progressive reduction in the mean annual, the flood, and the lowest water levels upon all the chief rivers draining central Europe; and that the change is very considerable. Wex claims that this reduction is due to cultivation and to the extensive clearing of forested lands, and argues further that it implies a corresponding diminution in the annual discharge of the springs, streams, and rivers, and hence in the annual rainfall. This last inference has been disputed, because rain records kept during these same periods at Paris, St. Petersburg, and Copenhagen indicate no change. Wex replies that these cities are too near the coast and too far from the mountains to afford a check, and that rain records kept in the Erz Mountains and at Geneva do show small reductions.

Whether a grand climatic change in Europe be in progress or not, it would seem that the observed facts can be more simply explained by the well-established change in regimen often following the destruction of forests, especially in mountain regions. The more rapid melting of snow and the reduced obstructions to surface drainage hurry the water forward and increase the number and sometimes the extreme height of the spring freshets, leaving a less volume to be absorbed by the ground and gradually returned through springs and brooks during the low-water season. Destructive floods are thus rendered more frequent, and summer droughts more to be dreaded. But since both the mean velocity and the area of cross section, and hence for a double reason the discharge per second per foot of rise, increase much more rapidly in the higher than in the lower stages, such a change of regimen (the annual volume remaining unchanged) would exhibit itself by a reduced mean annual level, and a reduced low-water level.

The influence upon the flood level is less easily inferred, because in large rivers the extreme height attained depends more upon the coincidence of floods in the different tributaries than upon the height reached in each. If the change in regimen leads to less frequent

coincidences than before, a much larger volume may pass off at a less flood height, lasting of course for a longer period.

Since these are the only data covering sufficiently long periods of time to be worthy of confidence, and since their indications can be logically explained without resorting to the hypothesis of a reduction in rainfall consequent upon cultivation and the destruction of forests, it can not be claimed that observation supports such an hypothesis. But the problem contains too many uncertain elements to warrant a purely theoretical solution, and it is therefore the part of wisdom to be cautious in advancing a claim that forests exert a beneficial influence upon the precipitation of moisture.

But however these valuable records be interpreted, whether they indicate a progressive change in climate or simply a change in river regimen, they certainly tend to confirm the belief generally entertained by experts, and based on facts observed at many widely different localities, that forests exert a most important regulating influence upon the flow of rivers, reducing floods and increasing the water supply in the low stages. The importance of their conservation on the mountainous watersheds which collect the scanty supply for the arid regions of North America can hardly be overstated. With the natural regimen of the streams replaced by destructive floods in the spring, and by dry beds in the months when the irrigating flow is most needed, the irrigation of wide areas now proposed will be impossible, and regions now supporting prosperous communities will become depopulated.

Moreover, forests upon steep mountain slopes like those upon the public domain of the United States should be preserved to protect their surface. The soil on such slopes is held back by the roots of trees and shrubs and by grasses and other low plants, and protected against wind. When these are removed, the soil washes down into the streams and is swept over arable lands in the valleys below, leaving the naked rock behind. In this way forest destruction on high mountain slopes produces results similar to those due to hydraulic mining in California, against which legislation by Congress has been sought and obtained. Millions of dollars have been expended during recent years in Europe in checking the force of floods due to denuded mountain slopes by the construction of stone dams and river beds and the planting of sod and trees; and in this country similar expenditures must follow the destruction of mountain forests if the narrow valleys of the West are to continue habitable.

In districts of less abrupt slopes, the trees form and accumulate a mass of humus and absorbent materials which gathers moisture and holds the rain water until it can percolate into the subsoil through channels provided around their roots. Ultimately this ground water finds its way into springs and brooks, and promotes the general fertility of the region. Experience in every civilized country bears testimony to the fact that cutting away trees under such circumstances is followed by the drying up of streams and by less favorable conditions for local water supply.

But a well-regulated water supply is not the only thing dependent on the preservation of forests. In civilized nations the demand for lumber and other forest products is continuous, and requires systematic and intelligent forest reproduction. Numerous districts in our country have now no more timber than is needed for early use, and if forest reproduction is not encouraged local-timber scarcity in the not distant future seems inevitable. The enormous waste from forest fires, incendiary and accidental, which prevail in nearly every part of the United States, the extravagant modes of lumbering, especially in the West,

permitting valuable logs to rot in the brush on account of slight defects, and the universal neglect of all reproductive measures threaten the prosperity of the country and should receive early attention from the Government.

FOREST ADMINISTRATION IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Before considering the American problem in detail, or any system for the administration of the public forests of the United States, it may be useful to briefly outline the forest measures which experience has dictated in other civilized countries, where, with the exception of Great Britain and China, the people enjoy the advantages of wellorganized and efficient forest departments, which also exist in nearly all British colonies. Our political, social, and climatic conditions are so different, however, from those of the countries of the Old World, that their methods of sylviculture and the legal complications resulting from their governmental, municipal, and private ownership of land, possess little practical value for us at this time; but it is desirable that Congress should appreciate that forest administration is now regarded as an important Government duty throughout the civilized world, and that it has been wholly neglected by the United States.

So many of the general features are common to all foreign forest systems that it will be necessary to consider only one of them in detail and to refer briefly to others which appear to afford good models for our consideration. That of France is selected for fullest explanation, not only because it dates from the Middle Ages, but because it is applicable to an entire country without the confusing special conditions which in most European states are the result of local provincial subdivisions.

France. Some kind of forest rules in connection with the game laws are said to have been handed down from the time of Charlemagne, but in 1669 Colbert, the minister of finance under Louis XIV, caused stringent forest laws to be enacted which proved of great benefit to the country. During the French Revolution the division of the large landed estates among many proprietors led to a general devastation of the forests, and induced legislation which finally, in 1827, established essentially the present forest administration system.

The central authority is vested in an administrative forest counsel, which consists of the minister of agriculture as president, the director of forests, and three officers entitled administrators. The forest council ordinarily meets once a week and deals with general matters pertaining to the forest administration.

The director of forests is the executive head of the forest service. His personal staff consists of two secretaries, one of whom is a forest inspector, and two clerks.

The three administrators are each the head of a bureau with headquarters in Paris, but they may be sent on special missions. In certain cases they act largely as inspectors, which was originally their exclusive duty. The first bureau deals with matters of law and police, purchases and condemnations of land, forest instruction, tools, supplies, etc. One of its sections is responsible for carrying into effect the decisions of the forest council, and for office work connected with the inspecting tours of the administrators. The second bureau is charged with preparing working plans and the actual management of the forests. The third bureau deals with torrents, the reforesting of mountain slopes, the care of young plantations, and with dunes, roads, buildings, and pasturage. The field personnel consists of 33 conservators, through whom all

matters from below reach the central administration. Thirty conservancies are established in France, 1 in Corsica, and 3 in Algeria. In 11 of these conservancies officers of the working-plans division are stationed, and in 5 officers of the reforesting division.

In the lower grades are 232 inspectors, 249 assistant inspectors, and 274 "guards general," or a total of about 800 men in the superior forest service. Forest guards of all grades number 4,170, so that the grand total of the service is about 5,000 men.

The areas in charge of the forest service include the property of the Government, of communities, and of public institutions. In addition, a certain oversight, varying in closeness with situation and character, is exercised over the forest holdings of private individuals.

All members of the forest service below the grade of officer must have served in the army aud, as a rule, must have attained the grade of noncommissioned officer. Their appointment and promotion are regulated by merit. They live in or near the forest, and each guard is charged with the care of about 2 square miles. Head guards superintend all work in progress and communicate the instructions of the officers. Police duties are an important part of their functions, including the right to make domiciliary visits and to arrest suspected persons. They take the oath of office and are prohibited from engaging in any industry connected with wood. They are entitled to pensions after completing twenty-five years' service, including the time spent in the army.

Forest products are sold by forest officers at auction or by the granting of permits, as the case may be, but the sums realized are paid directly into the public or communal treasury. Forest officers have nothing to do with the receipt or payment of funds.

Candidates for the grade of forest officer are, as a rule, trained at the National Forest School at Nancy, but one-third of the appointments are reserved for the promotion of deserving subordinates. After leaving the school the young officer is employed for about a year in learning his duties practically, under an inspector. His advancement and further promotion depend on his qualifications and exertions as reported by his immediate superiors. Forest officers are retired for age, as in the military service.

There are two forest schools in France, one for officers at Nancy, established in 1824, and another at Barres, to facilitate the promotion of deserving subordinates deficient in education. The course covers two years, each comprising six and a half months of theoretical and two and a half months of practical instruction. The latter consists of tours into the forests near Nancy, the Vosges, the Jura, etc., for the purpose of studying forestry, natural history, and surveying, a part of the time being devoted to military exercises. Military science forms part of the theoretical course. Between the foundation of the school in 1824 and 1887, 1,334 candidates for the forest service in France and 73 Englishmen had been received; the latter being admitted to prepare for service in India, under a special arrangement made with the French Government.

Under the general law the forest department forms part of the army, which in the case of mobilization is at the disposal of the war minister. The officers hold rank in the reserve or territorial army, and in time of war may be employed in command of the forest corps, or otherwise, as ordered. A military uniform is prescribed for all grades of the forest service, including the students at the schools.

The forest system of France has been extended to Algiers; but the

governor-general has been invested with special powers, to avoid constant reference to the central Government.

The annual revenue from the Government forests of France and Algiers exceeds $6,000,000, and the expenses for 1896 were estimated at $3,300,000.

Germany.-The political division of the Empire causes the regulation of the forests to devolve largely upon the several states, and slightly different systems are adopted, according to local requirements; but the management in Prussia may be regarded as practically typical of the whole.

The destruction of forests which occurred in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries has caused the advance of sand dunes from the shores of the Baltic, the washing away of surface soil in the western mountainous districts by torrential floods, and the overwhelming of fertile valleys with débris from mountain slopes. Forestry has thus been forced upon the attention of the Government. Bounties are granted to communes which undertake tree culture upon waste mountain slopes, seedlings and young trees are supplied at cost, and considerable sums are spent annually by the State in forest improvement, and especially in checking the advance of sand dunes.

Forest administration in Prussia is vested in the ministry of agricul ture, domain, and forests. The minister regulates the maintenance and utilization of the State forests. His staff consists of a head State forester, a director, and four technical forest counselors.

Prussia is divided into 679 forest districts, each averaging about 9,000 acres in extent, and under the control of a head forester. The district is the unit of financial administration, all accounts passing from the head forester through an independent treasurer to the finance department of the Government for audit. The head forester is charged with the entire management of his district; he receives a permanent appointment from the minister, after passing a prescribed technical examination, and he is entitled to a pension. Under him serve foresters, forest guards, and assistant foresters, for whose performance of duties and pay he is responsible. In 1887 there were in Prussia 3,390 foresters and 349 forest guards; previous service in the army is a condition of appointment to these grades, and the wearing of a uniform is compulsory, as indeed is the case with all grades of forest officials.

The next grade above that of head forester is that of forest master, who supervises several forest districts. Above him is the head forest master, who is a member of his provincial government, and supervises all the forest districts within its limits. These officers are appointed by the Sovereign, upon the nomination of the minister of agriculture, domain, and forests, each being selected from the next lower grade, and in the case of head forest masters the provincial ministry being consulted.

There are two forest academies in Prussia, one at Eberswalde and the other at Münden. The course of study covers two years, and is designed to fit the pupil for the higher grades of the forest service. There are also two classes of preparatory forest schools, for practical instruction in the duties of the lower grades.

The forest administration of Prussia contributes a large sum to the revenue, the annual receipts being about $14,000,000 and the expenditures about $8,000,000.

British India. The vastness of the forest area of British India, often arid, which has been successfully managed and protected, the