readily admitted by every candid mind; and, could he have added to the zeal of his youth the knowledge and experience of his maturer years, he would have advanced much farther. At one time his opinions on the subject of the papal prerogative were almost as absurd as those he entertained concerning the leading dogmas of the Romish superstition. The former he lived to correct in a great measure; a few more years would have done the same for the latter.

III. LITERARY SERIES.

William of Malmesbury.

BORN CIRC. A. D. 1095.-DIED CIRC. A. D. 1143.

THE most valuable part of the literature of the Anglo-Norman period, is unquestionably the extensive series of national annals, chronicles, and histories, composed by monkish writers. It is true, that to enlarged and philosophical views of history, these works possess no claim whatever, and that even in respect of literary talent they cannot be ranked very high; they are also deeply tinged with the supersti tious credulity of the times; but then, to use the words of Turner, "such a series of regular chronology and true incident,—such faithful, clear, and ample materials for authentic history,—had scarcely appeared before: nothing could be more contemptible as compositions,nothing could be more satisfactory as authorities." A few brief sketches of the principal of these chroniclers, with one or two other notices, is all that our limits will permit us to attempt.

An interval of upwards of two centuries intervened from the introduction of Christianity into England, before any national historian arose. Anglo-Saxon history, properly so called, begins with Gildas, surnamed the Wise, who seems to have written before the commencement of the 6th century. Nennius has been placed by some writers in the same era with Gildas, but he wrote in the year 858. From Gildas, until the 8th century, the only notices of English history we possess are contained in the odes of the British bards. The first AngloSaxon chronicle now extant, to which any certain date or certain origin can be ascribed, is the ecclesiastical history of Bede, already noticed. It is impossible to pronounce with certainty where the existing text of the Saxon chronicle was first formed. Wheloc formed the text which he has printed under the title of Chronologia Saxonica,' from two manuscripts, one in the Bennet library, and one in the Cottonian library, both of which may be referred to the 9th century. It was continued from time to time, by various writers, to the reign of Henry II. In the history compiled by Ethelweard, we have a very abridged translation of the Saxon chronicle. Florence of Worcester, who wrote in the reign of Henry I., translates the Saxon chronicle closely to the period where the chronicle of Asser begins; he then transcribes the work of the British prelate, but returns to the Saxon

chronicle as soon as Asser concludes. His contemporary, Simeon of Durham, commences with the death of Bede, and carries on till the death of Stephen. Henry, archdeacon of Huntingdon, divides his history into books, and treats distinctly of each of the kingdoms of the heptarchy until their union under Edgar. He states that, taking Bede as his basis, he added much from other sources, and borrowed from the chronicles which he found in ancient libraries. The historical writings of Ingulphus, abbot of Croyland, are now, with apparent reason, regarded as monkish forgeries.

William of Malmesbury, one of the fathers of English history, flourished during the first half of the twelfth century. He was born in Somersetshire, and from that circumstance is called also occasionally Somersetanus, but the date of his birth is uncertain. Mr Sharpe, the translator of his History,' thinks it probable that he was born about the year 1095. If this date is any thing near the truth, it seems reasonable to extend the assigned date of his death, viz. 1143, a few years at least, otherwise he must have died at the early age of 48; and indeed when it is considered that he only completed the last of his historical pieces in 1142, and that he subsequently made several corrections upon it, it may fairly be presumed that he lived several years after this latter date. He was descended, he informs us, from Saxon and Norman parents. When a child he discovered a fondness for learning in which he was encouraged by his father; and while yet a boy, he was placed for his education in the monastery, from which he afterwards received his name, and in which he filled the office of librarian. Here, in addition to the study of the Latin language, he applied himself to logic, medicine, and ethics, but history soon became his favourite and almost engrossing study.

The manner in which he conceived and executed the idea of those historical works by which he is known, cannot be better described than in his own modest and simple terms, which we shall quote from Mr Sharpe's translation.' "When at my own expense," says he, “I had procured some historians of foreign nations, I proceeded, during my domestic leisure, to inquire if any thing concerning our own country could be found, worthy of handing down to posterity. Hence it arose, that, not content with the writings of ancient times, I began, myself, to compose; not indeed to display my learning-which is indeed comparatively nothing-but to bring to light events lying concealed in the confused mass of antiquity. In consequence, rejecting vague opinions, I have studiously sought for chronicles far and near, though I confess I have scarcely profited any thing by this industry. For perusing them all, I still remained poor in information; though I ceased not my researches as long as I could find any thing to read. However, what I have clearly ascertained concerning the four kingdoms I have inserted in my first book, in which I hope truth will find no cause to blush, though perhaps a degree of doubt may sometimes arise. I shall now trace the monarchy of the West-Saxon kingdom, through the line of successive princes, down to the coming of the Normans: which if any person will condescend to regard with complacency, let him in brotherly love observe the following rule: If before he knew only these things,

London, 1815, 4to.

let him not be disgusted because I have inserted them; if he shall know more, let him not be angry that I have not spoken of them, but rather let him communicate his knowledge to me while I yet live, that, at least those events may appear in the margin of my history, which do not occur in the text.'

To the resolution announced in this extract we are indebted for his valuable work' De Regibus Anglorum,' being a general history of England, in five books, commencing with the arrival of the Saxons in 449, and concluding with the 26th year of Henry I. To this work he subsequently added other two books of modern history, as he called it, in which the history of his country is carried down from 1126, to the escape of the empress Maud from Oxford, during the civil wars, in 1143. Both these performances were composed according to the universal fashion of the times, in Latin; and their author's Latinity is pure beyond that of most of his contemporaries. They were published in the original, in Sir Henry Saville's collection of historical writers of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, entitled 'Scriptores post Bedam,' London, 1596; and also subsequently at Frankfort in 1601. Besides these, Malmesbury wrote a church-history in four books, and some Scriptural expositions, which are preserved in Gale's Rerum Anglicarum Scriptores,' Oxford, 1684.

"Few historians," says Andrews, "have been so highly and so deservedly praised as this modest friar." To patient and extensive research, he added the prime quality of an historian, veracity; and although he does not always avoid the marvellous, yet, considering the character of the age in which he lived, it would be doing him great injustice to represent him as a credulous author. Both Lyttleton and

Hume have borne ample testimony to his worth as an historian, and • the numerous references to his pages which occur in their writings, and in all our modern historians, furnish decisive proof of the value of his contributions to the historical literature of his country.

2

Robert Pullen.

BORN CIRC. A. D. 1090.-DIED a. D. 1150.

ROBERT PULLen, or White, "whose memory," says honest John of Salisbury," is pleasant to all good men, and whom the apostolic seat made a chancellor from a scholastic doctor,"1 flourished in the 12th century, and distinguished himself as a zealous student and promoter of learning. Fuller reckons him an Oxfordshire man. In his youth he studied at Paris, where he subsequently gave lectures in philosophy and theology to crowded audiences. About 1136, at the invitation of Asceline, bishop of Rochester, he returned to England, where his exertions mainly contributed to the restoration of that school of learning after it had been nearly ruined by the Danes. He is said to have prelected on the Scriptures and the works of Aristotle. Henry I. patronised him; and Asceline bestowed on him the archdeaconry of Rochester. After this he returned to Paris, where he filled the divinity chair in its then celeHist. of Great Britain, p. 230. 1 Metalog. p. 746. • Simeon Dunelm. apud Decem. Script. col. 275.

brated university. His metropolitan recalled him from this employment; and on his manifesting some reluctance to obey the summons, ordered the revenues of his benefice to be sequestrated until he should present himself. The archdeacon appealed from his superior to the see of Rome, and sentence was pronounced in his favour. The fame of his great learning induced Pope Innocent II. to invite him to Rome, where he was received with great marks of favour. In 1144, Celestine II. created him cardinal, and Lucius I1. afterwards made him chancellor of the Roman church. He was esteemed the most learned of all the college of cardinals. He died in 1150. The only work of his known to be now extant, is his Book of Sentences,' which was published at Paris in 1655. It contains a summary of Christian theology, and probably furnished the model for the more celebrated 'Sententiarum Liber,' of his successor Peter Lombard. Its most pleasing character is the deference it exhibits to the simple authority of scripture.❜

John of Salisbury.

BORN CIRC. A. D. 1116.-DIED A. D. 1182.

JOHN of Salisbury, one of the greatest ornaments of the 12th century, was born at Old Sarum-whence he derived the name of Sarisburiensis-about the year 1116. He received his early education in England, and went to the university of Paris for his further improvement, in 1136.1 In this famous seat of learning he spent no fewer than twelve years, in attendance upon the lectures of Abelard, and other eminent scholars, and acquired an uncommon amount of knowledge for the time in which he lived, both in philosophy and letters. His poverty obliged him to have recourse to the usual shift of a poor student, the preceptorship of his juniors; yet he managed to obtain for himself the most liberal education which Europe could afford, and to his knowlege of languages, added-what was exceedingly rare in such an age-some acquaintance with Greek and Hebrew. The account which he gives of his studies in his Metalogicus,' shows the laborious application with which the scholars of the middle ages pursued the knowledge they valued. He says that he first went to the Peripatetic school at Paris, where he studied logic. He then proceeded to dialectics under Master Alberic, whom he styles Opinatissimus Dialecticus.' He was two years with him, and Robert Metridensis, an Englishman. He next transferred himself to William De Conchia, grammarian. After this he followed Richard, called the bishop, going over the quadrivium, and what he had learned from other ve vith him. At this stage of his studies he also heard the German Harduin. He next revised his rhetoric with Peter Helias, and then resumed the study of logic with William of Soissons. Returning at the end of three years, he heard Master Gilbert prelect on logic and divinity, and from him proceeded to Robert Pullen and Simon Periacensis, under both of whom he studied theology. On returning to England, he embraced the

Dupin, cent. xii. cap. 15.

Sarisburien. Metalog. lib. ii. c. 10

monastic life at Canterbury, but first studied the civil law under Vacarius, then teaching with great applause at Oxford, and thus quali fied himself in an eminent degree for his subsequent intimacy with the leading prelates of the kingdom, Archbishop Theobald, and his successor Becket. To the latter of these eminent men he dedicated his famous 'Polycraticon,' or treatise " De nugis curialium, et vestigiis philosophorum," in which he keenly satirises the manners of the age, and the pretensions of the schoolmen. This work is indeed a curious and valuable monument of English literature in the 12th century; and it is impossible to peruse it without admiring the extensive and varied erudition of its author, and perceiving how far he was in advance of the general spirit of the times.

His connexion with Archbishop Becket involved him in many troubles; he was the very first person whom Henry II. sent into exile on account of his known attachment to that prelate. He continued nearly seven years abroad, during which time many dazzling offers were made to him, to induce him to desert the cause of his friend, and return to England; but, although he had repeatedly declared that he did not approve of the archbishop's conduct in every instance, yet he rejected with scorn every proposal which implied the desertion of his friend and patron in the hour of adversity, and devoted his whole time and abilities to negotiating the archbishop's affairs in Italy and France. In one of these journeys he was admitted to a familiar interview with his countryman, Pope Adrian IV., who condescended to inquire at him in what estimation the public generally held the successor of Peter and the holy Roman church. If John's own account of the conversation may be credited, he returned an answer to this interrogatory which would have been admired in the boldest of the reformers of the 16th century he says that he told all the truth to his holiness, and assured him that the public thought, "the pope himself was a burthen too great for whole Christendom to bear."

He returned into England a little before the archbishop, and was a mournful spectator of the murder of his friend, from whom he endeavoured, at the risk of his own life, to ward off the blow of the assassins. In 1172, he was promoted to the bishopric of Chartres through his interest with the archbishop of Sens.3 He died in the enjoyment of this dignity, in 1182.

Besides the works above mentioned, John composed several other treatises. A collection of his letters, consisting of above 300, many of them addressed to the first personages of the age, was published at Paris in 1611. The Polycraticon' was published at Paris in 1513, and also at Leyden in 1595, and again in 1639. A French translation of it appeared at Paris in 1640, under the title of Les Vanitez de la Cour.' F style is polished and classical to a surprising degree for the time in which he wrote.1 Throughout his writings there are also evidences of a vigorous understanding, and a mind much above the weak philosophy of his age. Of this there is sound evidence in his account

2 Seldeni Dissert. in Flet. cap. xii. sect. 2.

Bulæi Hist. Univ. Paris. Tom. ii.

p. 394.

Stephanius often quotes him in his notes on Saxo, and with these eulogiums,—' au reus scriptor,'' eleganter ut omnia,'-' auctor cum veterum quopiam comparandus,

p. 151.