young of the Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha. The fishes were taken from the hatchery, their age and size were recorded, the conditions under which the experiments were conducted were under perfect control, all sudden changes of temperature were avoided, and specific gravity and temperature readings were taken each morning.

Professor G. J. Peirce reported further studies on crystallizations in brines taken from the Bay of San Francisco. As observed under high magnification, particles of foreign matter come to be incorporated into the growing crystal. If unicellular algae are thus entrapped, they will demonstrate the pressure developed in the growing crystal, for their pearshaped cells will be pressed into slender spindles. These spindles do not resume their original shape when the crystal containing them is dissolved, which indicates that a very considerable force attended their compression. On the other hand, grains of starch, droplets of oil and other bodies of relatively simple chemical compound are not deformed, showing that their mechanical strength is greater than that of protoplasm, which is composed of several or many compounds.

The "Distribution of Nudibranchiate Mollusca" was discussed by Professor F. M. MacFarland, whose extensive studies on this problem are conclusive in showing that the more uniform conditions of Arctic seas permit the wide distribution of a single or small number of species of each genus, which, extending southward, has become split up into an increasingly larger number of species in response to the diversified environmental conditions met with. More temperate and tropical waters contain forms whose affinities indicate utilization of former marine connections across Central America and between the Mediterranean and the Indo-Pacific seas.

Following are the officers of the Pacific Division American Association for the Advancement of Science for 1927-1928, elected at the Reno meeting:

President: C. A. Kofoid, professor of zoology, University of California.

Vice-president: Ernest G. Martin, professor of
physiology, Stanford University.
Secretary-Treasurer: A. G. Vestal, Stanford Univer-
sity, California (to take effect October 1, 1927).
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE PACIFIC DIVISION
Ernest G. Martin, chairman, professor of physiology,
Stanford University, California.

C. A. Kofoid, professor of zoology, University of
California, Berkeley.

Walter S. Adams, director, Mount Wilson Observa-
tory, Pasadena (1928).

Bernard Benfield, consulting engineer, Kohl Building, San Francisco (1929).

Joel H. Hildebrand, professor of chemistry, University of California, Berkeley (1929). Leonard B. Loeb, associate professor of physics, University of California, Berkeley (1931). Emmet Rixford, professor of surgery, Stanford University, 1795 California Street, San Francisco (1928).

J. O. Snyder, professor of zoology, Stanford University (1930).

O. F. Stafford, professor of chemistry, University of
Oregon, Eugene (1930).
W. W. SARGEANT,
Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC EVENTS

THE MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES

THE Secretary of the Council on Medical Education and Hospitals of the American Medical Association, Dr. N. P. Colwell, in a statement made public on July 11 by the Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior, reports that during the past two years changes made in medical schools in the United States have been chiefly in the erection of new buildings, improvement of teaching staffs, the rearrangement of subjects in the curriculum, and closer affiliations with hospitals, with increased opportunities for students personally to study diseases at the bedside in dispensaries and hospitals.

The number of medical schools fluctuated from 80 in 1923 to 79 in 1924, when the General Medical College of Chicago was discontinued, and back to 80 in 1925, when the University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry was added. In 1926 the charter of the Kansas City College of Medicine and Surgery was revoked, but a new institution was promptly chartered to take its place under the name of the American Medical University of Kansas City.

During the past two years the number of medical students has continued to increase. Instead of only 12,930 in 1919, the number increased to 17,728 in 1924; to 18,200 in 1925; to 18,840 in 1926; and to 19,532 (estimate) in the session of 1926-27.

The number of graduates also increased from 2,529 in 1922 to 3,562 in 1924 and to 3,974 in 1925, but decreased to 3,962 in 1926. Although the number of medical schools has remained at about 80 since 1920, the numbers of both students and graduates have increased.

At the beginning of the reorganization of medical schools in 1906 the 162 medical schools then existing enrolled 25,204 students, an average of 156, and turned out 5,364 graduates, an average of 33. Last year (1926), however, the 79 medical colleges in the United States enrolled 18,840 students, an average

of 238, and turned out 3,962 graduates, an average of 50. During the past few years, indeed, the medical schools rated in Class A have been filled almost to capacity.

The movement toward the building of larger teaching plants, including both medical schools and hospitals, continues. During 1925 and 1926 such enlarged plants have been established and partially completed at the Universities of Colorado, Columbia, Illinois, Ohio, Rochester (N. Y.), Vanderbilt, Western Reserve, Wisconsin, and Meharry Medical College. Those which are nearing completion or are partly occupied are of the Universities of Chicago, Northwestern, Tennessee, and the Detroit Medical College. Medical centers with more modern buildings erected nearer to teaching hospitals are being established by the medical schools of George Washington, Georgetown, and Howard Universities at Washington, D. C., and also by Temple University at Philadelphia.

Since 1912 most of the medical schools have limited their enrolments to the numbers which could be given a satisfactory training in medicine, depending on their varying space, equipment and hospital relations. This limitation of enrolments has reduced the attendance in few of the colleges formerly having unduly large enrolments. The capacity of all others remains the same or shows an increase.

The United States still has more physicians in proportion to its population than any other country. In 1925 there was one physician to every 753 people, while Great Britain reports (1921) one physician to every 1,087; Switzerland and Japan reported (1925) one, respectively, to every 1,290 and 1,359; Germany (1912) one to every 1,940; Austria (1912) one to every 2,120; Sweden (1925) one to every 3,500.

In the United States, as in other countries, there has been a tendency during recent years for physicians to locate in cities rather than in rural districts. There is not, however, a shortage of physicians, the problem being one of distribution.

SURVEY LINES OF THE U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

THE records of the Coast and Geodetic Survey show that the distance between its two surveying stations on Mt. Shasta and Mt. Helena, both in California, is 192 miles. This line was used in a survey extended along the 39th parallel to join the surveys and charts of the Atlantic with those of the Pacific coasts of the United States. The system of triangulation involved the measurement of a few lines across country with extreme accuracy by means of metal tapes or base bars. Each of these lines form the side of a triangle, the other sides are computed from this

measured line by means of the angles of the triangles observed with high grade theodolites.

The line between Mt. Shasta and Mt. Helena could be used by reason of the employment of very large mirrors in the form of heliographs mounted on each of the stations. By means of the telescope of a theodolite the observer at one station could see, through his instrument, the reflected sunlight as a very dim star on the other peak.

Another long line in the survey across the country by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey was between Mt. Ellen, Utah, and Uncompahgre Peak, Colorado, the distance being 182.7 miles. There are many lines in the surveys of the Coast and Geodetic Survey which are more than 100 miles in length between stations.

It has been found, in recent years, to be more efficient to use electric signal lamps in the place of heliographs. An ordinary auto headlight with an especially constructed bulb, with contracted filament, has been so effective as to enable the observer to see its light with the unaided eye for distances as great as 150 miles. The electric current used is supplied by ordinary dry cells, such as is used to ring door bells. It was only when the atmosphere was as clear as crystal that the visibility was so perfect. Ordinarily the atmosphere has some haze in it and then the lights do not appear so bright.

The distance that one can see from one part of the earth to another depends on the heights of the mountain peaks and the configuration of the intervening ground. The curvature of the earth is so great that at a very few miles it would be impossible for a man standing at the shore-line of a bay to see a man standing at the shore-line on the opposite side. Where there are deep broad valleys between mountain ranges, the greatest distances can be observed.

EXPLORATIONS IN BRITISH COLUMBIA ROLLIN T. CHAMBERLIN, professor of geology at the University of Chicago, who with Mr. Allen Carpe, of New York, was the first to climb any of the major peaks of the Caribou range of British Columbia in 1924, has returned to the university after reaching the summits of three new peaks of th erange. Mr. Carpe, a prominent member of the American Alpine Club and one of the famous Mt. Logan expedition in 1925, again was Professor Chamberlin's companion this summer.

The new peaks climbed this summer were Kiwa, with an elevation of 11,400 feet; Mt. Welcome, with an elevation of 11,150 feet, and Mt. Goodell, 10,450 feet high. Kiwa was named for a creek which has its origin in the range, and Goodell was named for "Slim"

Goodell, a packer and trapper of the region, who was a member of the expedition.

To reach the new peaks, Professor Chamberlin and Mr. Carpe back-packed their equipment up grizzly and caribou trails sixteen miles to the end of the Kiwa Glacier. After they had established a camp at an elevation of 4,700 feet, they had considerable difficulty in surmounting two crevassed ice-falls. Several days were required to find a route over which they could pack sleeping-bags and food to a bivouac above the second ice-fall. From this base they climbed Kiwa Peak in five hours, in an interval between heavy snowstorms.

Part of the climbing on Kiwa Peak was done on a snow slope with an angle of 47 degrees, up which every step had to be cut. A part of the descent of Mt. Goodell could be accomplished only by digging out steps, and the two explorers were in imminent danger of snowslides. They spent seventeen days in the mountains, storms and cloudy weather often interfering with their work.

Until the 1924 expedition of Professor Chamberlin and Mr. Carpe, little was known of the range, the locations on the maps differing greatly. Exploratory efforts made by the late Professor E. W. D. Holway, botanist of the University of Minnesota, and Dr. A. J. Gilmour, of New York, in 1916, were rendered unsuccessful by weather conditions. Professor Chamberlin's successful trip in 1924 definitely located the range, which is separated from the Rockies on the east by that part of the Rocky Mountain Trench occupied by the Fraser and McLennan Rivers.

During his exploration of the peaks this summer, Professor Chamberlin gathered data concerning glacial movements which are said to be of considerable interest to geologists.

THE USE OF HUDSON'S STRAITS FOR
NAVIGATION

An important expedition, according to the daily AN press, has been sent out by the Canadian government, which left Halifax recently for Hudson's Straits. The purpose of this expedition is to investigate the practicability of the use of the Hudson's Straits for navigation for commercial purposes.

Various interests in western Canada that are behind the construction of the Hudson's Bay Railway, the establishment of grain shipping ports on the shores of Hudson's Bay, and a direct sea route to Europe, demanded that such an expedition be sent out to ascertain whether navigation of the Straits can be maintained throughout the year. The expedition is well fitted out to determine over a period of sixteen months exactly what the conditions within the straits are; whether they are closed by ice to

such an extent that they will not be practicable for the world's commerce, or whether they are open and can be made a commercial avenue with proper navigation aids, such as lights, buoys, wireless stations, lighthouses and air stations.

The expedition is under the command of Major M. B. McLean, formerly assistant superintending engineer of the St. Lawrence Ship Channel. The personnel numbers about fifty, including three squadrons of the Royal Canadian Air Force, and also full equipment for three wireless stations. These stations are expected to keep the expedition in hourly touch with Ottawa during the whole time the expedition is employed at their work.

The expedition is also provided with a moving picture photographer, under contract with the Federal government, with instructions to film the entire expedition from start to finish. The biological board also sends a representative to make comprehensive study of fisheries.

The expedition sailed in two ships, the Canadian government ship Stanley, an ice-breaker, thoroughly reconditioned for her work, and the freighter Larch, which carries a cargo of equipment and apparatus which is said to have cost over $1,000,000. Three base stations will be established, one near Port Burwell at the eastern entrance of the Straits, another at Nottingham Island at the western entrance of the Straits, and another halfway between, which will be situated on the north shore of the Straits.

Each station will consist of seven buildings-two dwellings, two hangars, one power-house and two storehouses. There will be two Fokker one-engine airplanes at each station, and the Stanley carries a small plane, a Moth, for scouting work to locate the sites for the stations. These buildings were all constructed in Halifax and placed aboard the ships ready to be erected as soon as the expedition arrives at its various bases. The supplies which accompany the expedition include 450 tons of coal and 100 tons of food supplies.

LECTURES ON SCIENCE

THE program of public lectures for 1927-1928 given by the Rochester Section of the American Chemical Society follows:

October 3-Some separations, old and new, by the ionic migration method: DR. J. KENDALL, New York University, New York.

October 17-Subject of lecture not announced: DR. C. NOLLER, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester.

November 7-Medicinals and pharmaceuticals: Dr. A. S. BURDICK, Abbott Laboratories, Chicago.

November 21-MR. E. G. MINER, Pfaudler Company, Rochester.

December 5-Fuels: Dr. S. W. PARR, University of Illinois, Urbana.

December 19-Vitamins and ultra-violet light: DR. ETHEL LUCE, University of Rochester Medical School.

January 9-Smoke: DR. G. T. MOORE, Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis.

January 23-DR. K. C. D. HICKMAN, Eastman Kodak Company.

February 6-Band spectra and molecular structure: DR. SAUL DUSHMAN, General Electric Company.

February 20-The discovery of the ovum: Dr. G. W. CORNER, University of Rochester Medical School.

March 5-Pharmacology: DR. A. D. HIRSCHFELDER, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

March 19-DR. S. E. SHEPPARD, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester.

Bridge Laboratories of the California Institute of Technology, will give a course of six Lowell lectures in Boston beginning on April 13, 1928. His subject will be "Twentieth Century Discoveries in Physics."

A COURSE on "Recent Progress in Medicine and Surgery" will be given during the autumn at the New School for Social Research, New York City. The opening lecture will be by Dr. Simon Flexner, director of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research; other lectures will be by Drs. Walter B. Cannon, professor of physiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston; Dr. Lewellys Barker, emeritus professor of medicine, the Johns Hopkins University Medical School, Baltimore; Dr. Francis Carter Wood, Columbia Uni

April 16-Wood distillation: MR. I. N. HULTMAN, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester.

May 7-Some speaker on Anti-knock fuels. May 21-Electro-metric measurements: DR. H. C. PARKER, Leeds & Northrup, Philadelphia.

Lectures at the New York Botanical Garden, during September and October, are given on Saturday afternoons at 4:00 o'clock. The program follows:

The big trees of California: Dr. H. A. GLEASON. Rarer wild flowers of New York City and vicinity: MRS. N. L. BRITTON.

Some successional aspects of the local vegetation: PROFESSOR GEORGE E. NICHOLS.

The Westchester County Park System: MR. JAY DOWNER.

Dahlias (exhibit of living collection): DR. MARSHALL A. HOWE.

In Southern California: MR. HOWARD H. CLEAVES.
Autumn coloration: DR. A. B. STOUT.

The campaign against diseases of our food plants: MR. F. C. MEIER.

The flora of the Catskill Mountains: PROFESSOR OLIVER P. MEDSGER.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

THE regular fall meeting of the executive committee of the American Association for the Advancement of Science will be held on Sunday, October 16. Matters to be considered by the committee should be in the hands of the permanent secretary in Washington a few days before the meeting.

PROFESSOR E. W. BROWN, of Yale University, has accepted the invitation of the American Mathematical Society to give the fifth Josiah Willard Gibbs lecture in connection with the meetings of the society and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Nashville, Tennessee, in December, 1927.

DR. ROBERT A. MILLIKAN, director of the Norman

Charles V. Chapin, Providence, president of the American Public Health Association, and Dr. Louis I. Dublin, of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. The lectures are intended for laymen, most of whom will be college graduates and some of them physicians and nurses.

WE learn from Nature that Professor Edward Westermarck has accepted an invitation to deliver the Frazer Lecture at Glasgow in 1928. It will be remembered that the lectureship is vested in four universities in Great Britain in rotation and this time the election falls to Glasgow. In view of the fact that the British Association will be meeting in Glasgow in 1928, the date of the lecture will be arranged to coincide with the date of the meeting.

DR. HOWARD T. KARSNER, professor of pathology in the school of medicine of Western Reserve University, has been appointed chairman of the division of the medical sciences of the National Research Council, Washington, D. C., for one year from September 16.

DR. PAUL EHRENFEST, professor of theoretical physics in the University of Leiden, has been elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences at Göttingen.

M. LOUIS RAVaz, director of the National School of Agriculture at Montpellier, has been elected a corre spondent in the section of rural economics of the Paris Academy of Sciences, to succeed the late M. A. Balland.

DR. REINHARD BRAUNS, professor of mineralogy and petrography in the University of Bonn, has been elected a foreign member of the Norwegian Academy of Sciences at Oslo.

THE Russian Academy of Sciences at Leningrad has elected to membership Dr. Heinrich Zeiss, professor of tropical medicine at Moscow.

P

DR. HIDEYO NOGUCHI, of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, was elected an honorary memEber of the "Société Dermatologique et Vénéréologique d'Odessa" at its meeting of May 15, when the twentyfifth anniversary of the founding of the society was celebrated.

יד

AT the celebration of the five hundredth anniversary of the founding of the University of Louvain, the honorary degree of doctor of medicine was conferred upon Dr. James B. Murphy, of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research.

DR. ARTHUR D. BUSH, Decatur professor of pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, since 1923, will retire at the beginning of the autumn term on account of ill health. His successor has not yet been appointed.

DR. HAROLD E. JONES, assistant professor of psychology at Columbia University, has been appointed director of research at the newly-created Institute of Child Welfare, of the University of California.

THE vacancy in the position of medical officer of the drug-control laboratory of the food, drug and insecticide administration, caused by the resignation of Dr. J. S. Jamieson, has been filled by the appointment of Dr. Paul McC. Lowell.

F. A. ERNST, acting chief of the Fertilizer and Nitrogen Fixation Investigations and for some time a member of the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory staff, has resigned to join the engineering staff of the Atmospheric Nitrogen Corporation, at Syracuse, N. Y. WE learn from Nature that Mr. Geoffrey Evans has been appointed principal of the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture at Trinidad. Mr. Evans was in the Indian Agricultural Service from 1906 until 1926. He was for a time attached to the Queensland Government in Australia as director of cotton culture, and during this period he also worked in Fiji, Papua and New Guinea.

PROFESSOR L. BOEZ, of the hygienic institute of the University of Strasbourg, has been appointed director of the Pasteur Institute at Saigon, French IndoChina.

PROFESSOR LEON W. COLLET, of the University of Geneva, will be visiting lecturer on geology at Harvard University during the first half of the school year beginning on September 26. Professor Collet will offer a course on the "Geology of the Alps," as well as a series of lectures on "The Principles of Geology."

DR. WILLIAM F. DURAND, past-president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, sailed on

August 16 as the official United States delegate on the International Advisory Committee on Prime Movers of the International Electrotechnical Commission. The meetings were held at Bellagio, on Lake Como, Italy, September 4 to 24. Dr. Durand also served as acting delegate on the Rating of Rivers in the place of N. C. Grover, of the Department of the Interior, the official delegate, who was unable to attend the sessions.

DR. E. HORNE CRAIGIE, who since the beginning of the year has been working in the laboratories of the Instituto Cajal in Madrid and of the Central Institute for Brain Research in Amsterdam, is in Budapest for the tenth International Congress of Zoology. At the close of the congress Dr. Craigie will return to Toronto.

BROTHER LEÓN, professor in the Collège of La Salle, Havana, who came to New York to receive the honorary degree of doctor of science from Columbia University at the commencement exercises in June, spent parts of June and July at the New York Botanical Garden, in continuation of studies of the Cuban flora, which, in cooperation with members of the garden staff, have extended over more than fifteen years.

DR. EUGENE ALLEN SMITH, emeritus professor of mineralogy and geology in the University of Alabama and state geologist since 1873, died on September 7, aged eighty-six years.

DR. WILLIAM LIBBEY, professor of physical geography at Princeton University from 1883 to 1923, died on September 6, aged seventy-two years.

JUERGEN HERMAN PAARMANN, curator of the Davenport, Iowa, Public Museum since 1902, died recently. Mr. Paarmann was born in Davenport in 1870 and was graduated from the State University of Iowa in 1901.

DR. CHARLES C. GODFREY, president of the American Association of Variable Star Observers, conducted in cooperation with the Harvard Observatory, died at Bridgeport, Connecticut, on August 31, aged seventy-one years.

RAY P. TEELE, chairman of the special advisory committee appointed by the Secretary of the Interior to investigate economic conditions of Indian irrigation projects in the West, died while investigating the Uintah irrigation project at Myton, Utah, on September 1 at the age of fifty-nine years.

DR. VICTOR G. KIMBALL, assistant professor in the veterinary school of the University of Pennsylvania, died on September 9.

THE twelfth annual meeting of the Optical Society