first instance, and notwithstanding that mere general remedies are but too often of no avail, when local ones will be effectual. We are satisfied of the error of denominating all remedies stimulant, and denying that they differ in their effects, except in degree; because we find that opium will produce sleep and constipation, with little obvious excitement; that volatile alkali will produce excitement, with little disposition to sleep or constipation; that hyoscyamus will produce sleep, without either of the other effects; and that alcohol cannot supply the place of any of these in every particular quality. Are emetics and narcotics, sudorifics and sialogogues, merely stimulants? If so, has the word stimulant any other signification than that of acting; and does to stimulate signify to produce an effect? It is obvious that the extension of the doctrine to all the varieties of disease, and every action of remedies, is either a gratuitous hypothesis, built upon a contempt of observation and experiment, or merely an unmeaning jargon, which may be modified by the imagination of each individual according to his own preconceived ideas. If indeed this were all, the mischief would be trivial but when the most copious and unvarying experience is attempted to be denied and proscribed, merely because it is incompatible with this gratuitous hypothesis, a more serious censure is called for. When typhus, gout, and dropsy, are said to require the same remedies, because standing in the same numerical portion of the scale; and when phthisis, apoplexy, and the plague, are classed together in the same way, and with the same directions, the danger which may thence occur, in the practice of the ignorant and implicit believers in this jargon, is incalculable. If the advocates of the system really act up to this sweeping classification, we think a new code of medical jurisprudence should be framed, and a system of medical police instituted, to defend the population of the realm. But this we believe is very far from being the case. Fortunately mankind have still the good sense to accommodate their hypotheses to the results of experience, rather than to leave the solid discoveries of the latter in pursuit of hypothetical shadows; and, in this instance, the uncertain meaning of the word stimulant is extremely favourable to such an accommodation. Thus it is admitted that mercury is the proper stimu lant for syphilis, bark for intermittent fever, and digitalis for lowering the pulse in hectic; not that these remedies have any peculiar or specific qualities, or that there is any peculiar action going on in those diseases, for these notions are exploded, but that, in truth, the theory possesses an universal fitness, like Sterne's text, and will do for any practice that may be found most expedient. What, then, has been the effect of the doctrine upon the general practice? Though it must be considered as inadequate to explain all the phenomena of diseases, yet we believe that its influence has on the whole been beneficial. It has induced a particular attention to the degree of excitement which accompanies both local and general diseases, and the regulation of which constitutes undoubtedly the most useful and the most fea sible means of alleviating the morbid state, although the excitement cannot be considered, in fact, as the essence of the latter. It has hence led to a more free use of wine and opium in diseases ac companied by debility, especially in fevers; and it has also contributed to produce a greater discrimination between the use of stimulant or exciting medicines, and the abstraction of stimuli and sources of irritation; and thus has rendered our practice in many diseases considerably more efficacious and less con jectural than it was formerly. Had not its application to many local discases, and to some general diseases, such as scurvy and syphilis, been obviously impossible, and had not even imperfect ex perience been preferred to a plausible but less perfect hypothesis, the errors which this doctrine would have produced would have been considerable. It tend ed to proscribe a particular attention to the different functions of the body, and to the peculiar effects of remedies; but the age has fortunately been actuated by a spirit of experimental research, and these subjects have attracted their share of attention. The "leaden and retarding weight" of a specious theory upon the progressive steps of medical science has been counteracted in its effects by the disposition of the times; and therefore the influence of the theory, on the whole, must be considered as productive of benefit. It has established some important general facts in the animal economy, and having enlarged our views both of health and disease, has prepared us for the reception of other truths, which future inquiry may present to our contemplation. In addition to the life of Brown, and the Elementa Medicina (a translation, corrected and collated by the editor), this edition contains "observations on the former systems of medicine, and outlines of the new doctrine," the latter of which is merely an analysis of the Ele ART. XIX. An Essay on Respiration. menta; and also "observations on the present system of spasm, as taught in the university of Edinburgh" (1787), which occupy 100 pages, and consist of a violent declamatory rant against the Cullenian doctrines, in which irony and sarcasm in a great measure supply the place of argument. Parts First and Second. By JOHN BOSTOCK, 8vo. pp. 276. of THE function of respiration is one the most important processes connected with animal organization; not only from its immediate influence upon the vital motions of the animal body, but from its intimate relations with all the other functions, which the different organs of the body perform. The state of temperature, the functions of digestion and assimilation, the secretion of bile, the deposition and absorption of fat, the muscular action, and even the exertions of the intellect, are all modified by the process of respiration, and reciprocally modify the operations which take place during that process. Until the nature of these operations therefore be well ascertained, our knowledge of the animal economy must be deemed extremely imperfect: and the steps of the pathologist will still be uncertain, in the obscurity which surrounds him, when he investigates the deviations from a state of health, in which those functions are particularly deranged. Mechanical philosophy, in the hands of a Boyle and a Hales, and in the most successful era of its cultivation, necessarily failed to throw much light on the physiology of respiration. The discoveries of modern chemistry have greatly advanced our knowledge upon this intricate subject; but much is yet to be accomplished, and the pathology of respiration remains to be investigated. It is to this latter part of the inquiry to which Dr. Bostock particularly means to direct his attention, and to which the collection of facts contained in this volume is merely preparatory. "During the course of my attendance upon the fever wards of this town," (Liverpool) the author observes in his preface, "I had been frequently led to notice the rapid changes of temperature which the body experiences in this disease, and I felt desirous to ascertain how far they could be reconciled to the mo dern doctrines of animal heat. For this purpose, I entered upon a course of experiment, respecting the chemical state of respiration in fever, and I afterwards determined to extend my inquiries to other states of the body, either natural or morbid, in which it might be supposed that this function would be affected. As however I was aware that the subject was not altogether new, it was proper to begin by making myself acquainted with what had been previously done by others, not only on this particular topic, but respecting respiration in general. But the information that has been acquired, still remains dispersed through a great variety of publications, some of which are voluminous, and others not easily to be procured. I conceived, therefore, that my first object would be to collect the best authenticated facts, and the most valuable opinions that had been advanced, and to arrange them in such a manner, as to present a correct idea of the present state of our knowledge." The volume before us is the result of this useful labour; and, from the industry and jndgment, which the author has displayed in the execution of it, we are led to anticipate a considerable addition to our pathological knowledge in the completion of his plan. The whole of the plan, of which the first and second parts are now published, is briefly stated in the introduction. "In treating upon this subject I shall begin by giving an account of the process of respiration; I shall in the second part point out its direct effects; in the third part, the different affections of respiration will be noticed, whether occasioned by the various natural situations in which the body is placed, or by the effects of morbid causes operating upon the system; I shall conclude by investigating its uses, and by an attempt to ascertain the connexion which subsists between respiration and the other functions." In chap. i. Dr. Bostock gives a short and clear description of the human organs of respiration; and adds in a note the different opinions of several anatomists, with regard to the form of the cells or vesicles in which the bronchia terminate. He seems to lean to the opinion of Helvetius, that they terminate in a cellular or spongy tissue, composed of a delicate or membranous substance, the cells of which have no determinate figure, or regular connexion with each other, and not in regularly rounded vesicles, as is generally described. Chapter ii. contains an account of the mechanism of respiration," to which he has added in several notes a description of the controversies of anatomists on this subject, and an account of the different opinions of the mecha nical philosophers. In chapter iii. he enters upon a more intricate inquiry, "into the bulk of a single inspiration, and into the capacity of the thorax in its different states of distension." The latter part of the inquiry is of peculiarly difficult research, and, owing to a difference in stature and conformation, as well as to the influence which the state of the stomach, muscular exertion, mental impressions, &c. have upon the respiration, the investigations have not been attended with satisfactory results. The author details the methods adopted by the different physiologists in their experimental inquiries, and points out with considerable ingenuity the sources of the errors into which some of them have obviously fallen. In the experiments of Dr. Menzies, Dr. Bostock observes that there is no assignable cause of error, and their coincidence with each other, (although instituted in two very different modes), and also with those of Jurin, is a strong argument in favour of their accuracy. He estimates the bulk of a single inspiration at forty cubic inches. Dr. Menzies also estimated the medium capacity of the lungs in a state of ordinary expiration at 179 cubic inches. This quantity Dr. Bostock considers as too small, and conceives that, in their natural condition, the lungs contain about 280 cubic inches of He believes Dr. Goodwyn's estimate of the quantity of air left in the lungs after a complete expiration, at 109 cubic inches, to be the nearest approximation to the truth, though probably not altogether correct. "From the above data," he concludes, " it may be estimated, that by each ordinary expi ration one-seventh part of the whole contents of the lungs is discharged, and that by the most violent expiration, somewhat more than four-sevenths of the air contained in them is evacuated." Chapter iv. is entitled an "Inquiry into the Cause of the first Respiration, and of the Alternation of Inspiration and Expiration." The author thinks the explanation of Dr. Whytt, who refers the first inspiration to an uneasy sensation in the thorax, objec tionable, as well as those of Boerhaave, Hartley, and Darwin, who con sider the thorax as accidentally dilated in the struggles of the infant, which are excited by the painful sensations of cold, &c.; and he attributes the first expan sion of the lungs to the mechanical change which takes place in the posture of the body of the infant, when it leaves the uterus, when the trunk and limbs are straightened, and the pressure being removed from the abdomen, the liver and the other abdominal viscera descend into their proper situation. We must ac knowledge that the explanation of Hartley (note 22) is in our view more satis factory. With respect to the alternations, the author believes both the actions of inspiration and expiration to be excited, in a way which, as in other instinctive motions, cannot be explained; in conse quence of the uneasy sensation produced in the thorax by the presence of blood, which has undergone a certain change in the course of the circulation, and which is again altered by the admission of fresh air: for he denies the assertion of Haller and Whytt, that the uneasy sensation arises from any impediment to the passage of the blood through the lungs in a state of expiration, since no such impediment occurs. In chap. i. of part ii. the author examines "the mechanical effects produced by the dilatation and contraction of the thorax," especially on the contiguous parts, and considers them as much less considerable than was imagined by the older physiologists. In chapter ii. he treats of "the change produced by respiration in the inspired air," and gives a well digest ed chronological view of the discoveries and opinions of the mechanical and che mical philosophers on this subject. Of this long and valuable collection of information it is impossible to give any analysis within the limits assigned us. The author recapitulates the conclusions which may be deduced from the experiments which he has related. They are the following: 1. Atmospheric air, once respired, loses nearly 4 of its oxygen. 2. Carbonic acid is generated, the volume of which is less than that of the oxygen absorbed, nearly in proportion of 37 to 45. 3. The whole volume of the air respired is diminished by about one-eightieth of its bulk. 4. A great quantity of aqueous vapour, the amount of which is still undetermined, is emitted from the lungs. 5. It is probable that a small portion of azote is absorbed, upon an average about 1-160th of the air inspired. 6.-It appears that a greater quantity of oxygen is consumed, than is necessary for the formation of the carbonic acid which is produced. In chapter iii. the author inquires into the change produced upon the blood by respiration;" and, after noticing the various opinions of the mechanical physiologists, and recounting the experiments of Priestley, Lavoisier, &c. by which this intricate subject was gradually developed, he adopts the theory of La Grange and Hassenfratz, as it was modified by Mr. Allen of Edinburgh. "According to this hypothesis, the blood in its passage through the capillaries of the lungs, absorbs oxygene, which is loosely united to the whole mass of fluid; by this union its colour is changed from a deep purple to a bright scarlet. The oxidated blood is then carried along the arteries; in the course of the circulation the oxygene leaves the whole mass of blood, and forms an intimate union with a part of the hydrogene and carbone contained in it: by this operation, it loses its bright colour, and assumes the venous appearance. This portion of hydrogene and carbone, reduced to the state of an oxide, is then carried along the veins, until it arrives at the lungs, where, after being united with an additional quantity of oxygene, it is discharged from the blood, and forms the carbonic acid and the aqueous vapour which are found to exist in the air of expiration." Page 115. "According to this hypothesis," the author adds, "venous and arterial blood differ only in the arrangement of their component parts in the latter case the oxygene is loosely combined with the whole mass, whereas in the former, it is in close union with a portion of the hydrogene and carbone only." He afterwards attempts to shew that the proofs of the discharge of hydrogene from the blood are not satisfactory, and maintains in opposition to the authority of Lavoisier, and the generality of physiologists, that carbone alone is emitted from the blood during respiration, the aqueous vapour arising merely from the mucous fluid, which is poured out by secretion upon the inner surface of the lungs. The lungs therefore, as well as the skin, assist in the cooling process, when the body is placed in high tempe ratures. We agree with the author in the opinion that this hypothesis will assist in the elucidation of some of the anomalous facts in animal heat, which, upon Dr. Crawford's principle, are not easily explained. The concluding chapter contains an account of the respiration of the different gases; from which it appears, contrary to the observations of Dr. Beddoes, that the same quantity of oxygen is consumed in respiration in whatever portion it is inspired; and that we have no proof that the respiration of pure oxygen is inju rious to the animal economy. Nearly half of the volume is occupied by the notes, which contain much valuable information, together with a copious index, and a list of references to all the scattered sources from which the author has collected his materials. Upon the whole, this volume will be esteemed of considerable value, by all those who are unable to refer to the various works in which the experiments on this interesting part of physiology are detailed, and will save infinite labour to all who wish to study the subject, by placing before them in one view the multiplicity of scattered facts and observations which have been at various times published. There is a candour and simplicity in the narrative of opinions and experiments, and an obvious disregard for particular systems and theories, which induce us to rely implicitly on the statements of Dr. Bostock: and his inferences are never forced beyond those limits, to which well established facts appear to bear him out. We have every reason to believe him to be well prepared for the arduous investigation, which will form the subject of his future volume. ART. XX. Memoirs on Respiration, by LAZARUS SPALLANZANI. 8vo. THE merits of Spallanzani as a naturalist and physiologist have been long highly appreciated. He possessed a mind ardently bent on the investigation of nature, and he pursued the objects of his research with assiduity and perseverance. With the exception of Haller, there is perhaps no physiologist who has made more attempts to unravel the secret operations of the animal economy by the aid of direct experiment; and although he has in some instances been deficient in accuracy, and in others been strongly perverted by a favourite hypothesis, his works must always be regarded as valuable and interesting. For some years before his death he had projected a very extensive series of experiments on respiration, and he had advanced considerably in the execution of them when this event took place. Fortunately the different branches of the inquiry were kept distinct from each other, and he had so far completed some of the divisions of his subject, that at the time of his decease, four memoirs were in a state fitted to be presented to the public. One of these has, however, from some cause, not yet made its appearance; the other three form the basis of the work now under consideration. Mr. Senebier of Geneva, who was the intimate friend and corre spondent of our author, had promised him to translate his work into the French language upon its publication, and when this condition was rendered impossible, he obtained the MS. from Spallanzani's relatives, and now appears before the public both as the translator and the editor. He has prefixed a sketch of the life and writings of his friend, and a letter which he had received from Spallanzani some time before his death, on the subject of the following memoirs; this letter has already appeared in the 57th volume of the Journal de Physique. " We are informed that Spallanzani was born, the 10th of Jan. 1729, at Scandiano, in the department of Crostolo, to the north-east of the Appennines, about seven miles from Reggio, and fourteen from Modena. He was the son of John Nicholas Spallanzani, a celebrated advocate, and Lucia Zugliani, a native of Calorni, in the duchy of Parma." He commenced his education in his native country: at the age of fifteen he went to pursue his studies at Reggio, and afterwards at Bologna: "In the university of which city his cousin Lauta Bassa, a woman justly celebrated throughout Italy for her genius, her eloquence, and her knowledge of physical and mathematical science, was one of the most illustrious professors. Under the direction of this enlightened guide, he learned to prefer the study of nature to that of her commen tators, and to estimate their value by com paring them with the originals they professed to describe: the scholar at once perceived the wisdom of these counsels, and quickly his gratitude to his instructress, in a Latin experienced their happy effects. He evinced dedicated to Laura Bassa; and in which he dissertation, published in 1765, which was recounted the applauses she received at Modena, when entering the hall, where her papil, on being appointed a professor, defended a thesis, De lapidibus ab aqua resilientibus, she opposed it with the graces of an amiable woman, and the wisdom of a profound philosopher." himself to the study of physical science, Spallanzani, however, did not confine he paid considerable attention to the classics, and to belles lettres: we are told Greek and French languages, and that that he was particularly attached to the "Homer, Demosthenes and St. Basile were his favourite authors." His father had devoted him to the profession of ju risprudence, and the young Spallanzani had so far sacrificed his inclination to his duty, as to be on the point of being elected doctor of laws, when Vallisnieri, professor of natural history at Padua, undertook to obtain from his father that branch of science, to which he had alhe might be permitted to study the ready shewn so powerful an attach ment. In 1754 he was appointed professor of logic, mathematics, and Greek, in the university of Reggio, in which situation he remained for six years. During this period he first gave the world a specimen of his talents as an accurate observer in his remarks upon the animalcula infusoria, by which he attracted the notice of Haller and Bonnet, and so far extended his character for science, that about the year 1760 he received invitations from the universities of Modena, Coimbra, Par. ma, and Cesena. He, however, deter. mined to take up his residence at Mo. |