some legislator has thought of touching. We do not regulate the price that a man shall pay for his food and clothing, but we do say what kind of food and clothing can be sold to him, and under what conditions. In looking over the statutes of the session just closed, I see that it will no longer be safe for a man to send his children to a private school unless that school complies with some of the technical regulations of the State Board of Education in the matter of returns to their secretary; that a man cannot sell the securities of foreign trust and investment companies in this State unless those companies have submitted to certain examinations by our bank commissioners. Butter and molasses are under the protecting care of the dairy commissioner. Nobody can negotiate the insurance of his neighbor without a license to do so from the insurance commissioner. A man cannot travel on a railroad-train on Sunday, and have the benefit of his commutation or mileage ticket. If, in case of illness in my family, I find there is no brandy in the house, and it is wanted at once, it is illegal for my grocer to give it to my boy if I send him for it in a hurry. If I run a factory, it must be run as the newly appointed inspector of factories says is right, and not as the business may compel me."

The data from New York State which has reached us, while plentiful, is not very specific. The large majority of our correspondents in that State coincide in stating that State interference is on the increase. Assemblyman Ernest H. Crosby of New York City writes that interference has lately been shown in the appointment of such officials as railroad commissioners, factory inspectors, commissioners of arbitration, and so forth, and in acts regulating the price of gas, limiting the hours of labor on street-railways, etc. Mr. Herbert L. Osgood of Brooklyn refers to the Mechanics' Lien Act of 1885 as an interference with the freedom of contract. He mentions also an act compelling employers to erect proper scaffoldings for those at work upon buildings, an act regulating the height of dwellings in New York City, acts relating to the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine, the sale of butter, the slaughter of cattle, etc.

The State expends about twenty-eight thousand dollars a year in subsidizing agricultural societies.

With respect to State interference in New Jersey, we are in possession of extremely full returns, for the most valuable portions of which we are under obligations to Mr. William I. Lewis of Paterson. Mr. Lewis finds as the result of a careful examination of the legislation since 1878,- to and including the session of 1886, that about two-sevenths of the laws show a marked tendency toward interference with personal affairs, and about one-seventh additional show a slight tendency in that direction. In the period mentioned above, 2,016 laws have been enacted, and 414 of them are for the purpose of controlling or regulating private and personal affairs or business. Of these 414 laws, seven provide for agricultural experiments; two protect bottlers of beer by establishing a peculiar procedure, and inflicting peculiar penalties on persons who steal bottles or unlawfully have them in their possession; fourteen regulate the sale of butter and milk; one directs how cows shall not be fed; eight are designed to protect children by regulating their employment and education; two to encourage organizations of workingmen; one establishes standard packages for cranberries; one provides for the construction of proper waste-gates in dams; four are in aid of deaf-mutes; three regulate the manufacture and sale of fertilizers; two offer bounties for the production of jute, flax, and hemp; fifty-seven are for the protection of game and fish; thirty-six are for the protection of health; two deal with the cutting and sale of ice; twenty-seven regulate the business of insurance; ten establish and encourage a bureau of labor statistics; seven aim to improve meadow and swamp lands; three deal with pilots and their apprentices; six incorporate rifle societies, and encourage marksmanship; seventy-seven concern education; twelve provide for the maintenance of an industrial school for girls; four are for the better securing of wages to workingmen; and six concern the relief, protection, etc., of workingmen.

This exhibit of Mr. Lewis's exemplifies excellently the tenor of legislation in New Jersey. We could wish that we had as accurate an analysis of the laws elsewhere; but it will be seen that there is general concensus of opinion among our correspondents to the effect that the tendency toward State interference is not confined to any one State or group of States.

Prof. E. J. James of Philadelphia writes that “the course of legislation in Pennsylvania is very similar to that in Minnesota;" and Professor Holmes of the University of Virginia mentions local option, railroad supervision, the multiplicity and inquisitorial character of the taxes, civil marriages, and the drummers' tax law (recently declared unconstitutional) as recent evidences of a similar development of legislative activity.

Our most definite reply from the south-western States comes from Hon. Logan H. Roots, president of the board of trustees of St. John's College, Little Rock, Ark. Mr. Roots says that “a tendency upon the part of the indolent to ascribe their poverty to honesty, and the prosperity of the industrious to dishonesty, seems to have seized the ignorant; and the legislators pandering to that. tendency have many of them acted on the theory that any thing or person that prospered was per se a 'fraud' which must be regulated. The special frauds to be regulated' in the eyes of our recent Legislature were money-lenders, telephones, railroads, and cottonseed-oil mills, with some attention given to prices at which merchants might transact business."

Of the central-western States, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois are following the same road that we find to be so popular elsewhere. Ohio has a board of stock commissioners with absolute power to regulate the trade in live-stock and all importations, dairy commissioners, and special laws to govern the sale of farm-products, laws prohibiting the sale of liquor in certain places, and so on through a long list.

Illinois is overrun with such laws, and Mr. Edward J. Cahill of Chicago sends us a long list of them. Since 1871, Illinois has been in the grain-weighing business: it designates elevators for the storage of grain, and regulates its transportation by railroad. Mills and millers are carefully looked after, including the manner of grinding, the character of the buildings and tools used, etc. A bounty of ten dollars an acre is at the disposal of those who will plant forest-trees. Fence-laws appoint fence-viewers, who see that all fences are four and a half feet high, and that proper materials are used. A State board of agriculture, with a corps of salaried officials, promotes agriculture and horticulture. This board spent thirty-six thousand dollars in 1885, and is authorized to bestow five thousand dollars annually in premiums at fairs and stock-shows. The Bureau of Statistics, organized in 1879, has become a department of state, and presents annual reports on the social, educational, and sanitary condition of the laboring-classes. Game-laws are numerous. The manufacture of butter and cheese is regulated: five hundred dollars goes every year to assist dairymen in making reports. Illinois offered ten thousand dollars to the citizens who had exhibits at the New Orleans exhibition; it also pays from fifty thousand to one hundred thousand dollars to assist cities which, through the negligence of their officials, fail to take proper precautions against damage and loss by fire and water. Mr. Cahill also points out what the effect of the passage of such bills has been on subsequent Legislatures. In the session of 1887, for instance, about eight hundred bills were presented to the Legislature, and fully three-fourths of them had a tendency toward State interference. "We have bills seeking to regulate contracts between employer and employee, providing for the giving to each party a given number of days' notice to quit or intention to quit, calling for mutual co-operative associations for pecuniary profit, to increase the power of the department of labor, to provide for arbitration of labor-troubles, to grant additional labor-liens, to enforce the eighthour movement, and to encourage mutual loan associations on the co-operative plan. The effect of State interference with professions and other business interests has created new demands: the architect petitions for a special board; the stenographer demands recognition; and in due course we shall have the merchant-tailor and the corner grocer, for already we have the liquor interest asking for a State board to pass on 'good whiskey;' and the prohibitionist asks for a bureau for the study of the nature and effect of alcoholic beverages, etc.; while the mugwump' of religion is on hand, seeking recognition by way of ethical instruction' in our public schools; and, to crown the ridiculous, we have the LiveStock Board, just created, asking that companies be formed for the detection and apprehension of horse-thieves;' thus making a farce of our criminal procedure."

6

Prof. Henry C. Adams writes that in Michigan the tendency is in harmony with that observed by Dr. Shaw in Minnesota.

President Pickard of Iowa State University finds the most striking feature in the recent legislation of Iowa to be the number of legalizing acts passed. He says that twenty-five per cent of all acts passed were designed to correct carelessness or ignorance of officers and municipal corporations; but Prof. Jesse Macy of Iowa College says that Iowa is side by side with Minnesota, and cites in evidence a number of acts passed at the last session of the Legislature. The Legislature passed laws strengthening the prohibitory liquor legislation, it made elaborate statutes regulating the practice of pharmacy and medicine, it looked after the miners' interests through a commission, it provided an arbitration board for the settlement of labor-difficulties, it laid new duties on the board of health concerning canned goods and inflammable oils, and passed a large number of laws of the same general tenor.

Ex.-Pres. A. L. Chapin of Beloit College, Wisconsin, thinks that State interference has not gone so far in that State as in Minnesota, though it is plainly seen in numerous enactments.

Mr. Frank R. Morrissey of the Omaha Herald represents Nebraska in our correspondence, and finds a marked tendency to sumptuary legislation in his State.

From the Pacific coast we hear of this tendency, though in California the new State constitution seems to have repressed it to a great extent. Mr. A. H. Agard of Oakland writes that proposed legislation in California manifests the tendency in question; but little progress is made, because the Legislature is restrained by the provisions of the State constitution, which forbids the enactment of laws termed special.' The effort on the part of the Legislature is to frame laws of such a character that they will operate restrictively, and yet not be declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. It might be termed forbidden legislation by adroit evasion.' The particular manifestations of interference just now are against the Chinese, against monopolies,' hydraulic mining, and the retail liquor-trade.

It will thus be seen, from this brief summary of the evidence we have gathered, that State interference has a tendency in general throughout the United States. It is more extreme in some States than others; and our analysis of the laws of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Illinois, shows it to be particularly progressive in those States. It remains to present the various opinions entertained toward State interference by our representative correspondents. [To be continued.]

THE NEW ROUTE FROM ENGLAND TO EASTERN ASIA, AND THE HUDSON BAY ROUTE.

A FEW weeks ago the first steamer coming from Yokohama arrived at Vancouver. Thus the new line from England to eastern Asia by way of the Canadian Pacific Railroad has been opened. In order to show the merits of this route as compared to the American Pacific railroads, we have drawn up the accompanying sketchmap. We have chosen the gnomonic projection, as it is the best means to show the shortest route between two points. The earth's surface is projected from the centre of the globe upon a tangential plain touching it in latitude 60° north and longitude 120° west. In this projection all great circles, i.e., the shortest lines between two points, are represented by straight lines. The map extends from England in the east to Yokohama in the west. It makes it clear why the North-west and North-east Passages were so eagerly sought for. They are the nearest to the great circle between England and China, which runs right through the Polar Basin. The nearer a route approaches this great circle, the shorter it is. Therefore it will be seen that the distance from London to Yokohama, via the Canadian Pacific Railroad, would be by far the shortest. There are several facts, however, which detract from the value of this route. We have drawn out the great circle between London and New York. It will be seen that it crosses Newfoundland. Yet ships do not keep close to the southern point of that island, on account of the numerous dangers obstructing their passage, but prefer to go a round-about way, keeping far south. The same difficulty is encountered in approaching Halifax; and therefore the longer route to New York is by far to be preferred to the shorter one to Nova

Scotia, particularly in the latter part of the winter and in spring. when ice is met with in the Atlantic Ocean. The Gulf of St. Lawrence is not navigable during part of the year on account of the heavy masses of ice. Thus the shortness of the route from England to Nova Scotia is more than counterbalanced by the dangers of navigation.

But even from New York the Canada route to Japan is far shorter than that by way of San Francisco. The difference in length between the great circle San Francisco-Yokohama and VancouverYokohama may be seen on the sketch-map. It must be considered, however, that the latter cannot be made use of, as it crosses Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. Steamers must keep farther south, and must strike the San Francisco route near the longitude of the west point of Alaska Peninsula. This makes the distance from Vancouver to Yokohama somewhat longer than it would be without this chain of islands intervening. The distance from New York to Puget Sound by way of the Northern Pacific Railroad is longer than by the Canadian Road, as Lake Michigan extends so far south; but when the road from Umatilla Junction to Tacoma is finished, the difference in the two distances will not be very great. The sea-route from Tacoma to Yokohama is of course essentially the same as that from Vancouver. The great circle between these places and the ports of China runs nearly through the Tsugaru Strait, passing Hakodadi.

When the work on the Canadian Road is completed, it will probably be not more frequently obstructed by snow-drifts than the Northern Pacific, but the difference in distance between these two lines is not so great as to exclude a successful competition.

The harbor of Vancouver is Burrard Inlet. It is sheltered from the sea, but the entrance is somewhat difficult, being very narrow and occupied by tide-races. The shortest route from the port would lead through the narrow channels between Vancouver Island and the mainland, in which navigation is difficult on account of the strong tides and numerous rocks.

The shortest route from the ports of the Atlantic coast to Japan and China would lie even farther north than the Canadian Pacific Railroad; and if the Saskatchewan branch should be built, and continued to the northern part of the coast of British Columbia, the distance would be still more diminished. We do not believe that the climate would offer insurmountable difficulties, but the settlement of these countries will not be so rapid as to justify the construction of a new Pacific railroad.

The railroad question is of the greatest importance for the development of the North-west Territories, Athabasca, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Assiniboia, and Manitoba. The distance to the nearest ports is so long that export is very difficult: therefore endeavors have been made to open a new route by making use of Hudson Bay. It will be seen on our map that the proposed Hudson Bay route from Liverpool to Port Nelson is very short and straight, and that it would offer a splendid opportunity for the export of the North-west Territories. We believe, however, that the character of the seas will prevent the plan being carried out. The railroad-route from Winnipeg to Port Nelson has been surveyed, and no serious obstacles are said to exist; but the railroad must be continued farther north to Fort Churchill, as Port Nelson is not a safe harbor. The navigation of the west coast of Hudson Bay, particularly for large vessels, is very difficult on account of its shallowness, and the construction of piers in Fort Churchill will be expensive and difficult on account of the ice.

The principal difficulty is the navigation of Hudson Strait. Its eastern entrance is blocked by pack-ice until the middle of July. A passage may sometimes be forced early in June by a ship well strengthened against the pressure of the ice, but navigation cannot be opened until about the 10th of July. About this time, ice is still whirling around in Ungava Bay, patches are found near Charles Island, and Fox Basin is filled with very heavy and dangerous masses of ice. We believe that these form the principal obstacles to navigation. The light ice of Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait will not form serious obstacles late in the season; but a spell of northerly winds will invariably drive the heavy masses of Fox Basin into the Strait, and a ship caught in this ice will be in an extremely dangerous position. The floes are small, and attain a thickness of from twenty to thirty feet. This ice frequently blocks

up the passages between the islands at the western entrance of Hudson Strait, where it is kept in rapid motion by strong currents, Log-books kept by whalers show that it is frequently found in Hudson Strait in September. We should say that the passage will never be safe, and that large freight-steamers, such as would be required for this trade, cannot be run longer than from the middle of July to the first days of October. It is improbable that under such circumstances a railroad to Fort Churchill and a line to Hudson Bay would pay. The shortness of the season and the dangers of the ice are so great, that this line cannot attain a great commercial value.

THINKING IN SHAPE AND PICTORIAL TEACHING.

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THE REV. Edward Thring of Uppingham, the well-known author of Theory and Practice of Teaching,' spoke before the teachers' guild in London recently on thinking in shape and pictorial teaching. Mr. Thring began by drawing attention to the vital distinction which divides mankind, consciously or unconsciously, into two classes, those who value knowledge, and those who value the seeing heart and the seeing eye. The pursuit of knowledge is the creed of the first. Knowledge he defined to be for the multitude second-hand information, which, however valuable, may, like gold in the desert, be utterly useless. He then showed, that, precious or not, few get it, and that the unsuccessful attempt to get it is deadly to living power. Living power is required, and can only be given by teaching pupils to think in shape; that is, to train the mind, whenever it sees any thing, to find out at once what thought made the shape it sees; and, on the other hand, to take every word used and put it at once into some definite shape, example, or reality. Examples of this were given, showing the difference between an arithmetical fact and living feeling, between words and memory and a vivid mental picture. Then the lecturer proceeded to show that every word not vividly understood is a cipher, and that words are not vividly known, and never can be vividly known, unless thinking in shape is taught and practised. After showing the failure of memory-work, the lecturer pointed out that the commonest objects cannot be described correctly, because no one has been taught to see what they really are. A common chair can be made to give a history of thought and life and experience taking shape, and to lead up to the great fact that every shape is such a history, a living narrative, and the whole world a great illuminated volume of thought, speaking through shape which can be read by those who have learned to read thought in shape. But if this is so, then all shape is a language speaking truth or falsehood, giving honor or dishonor. And it does matter whether rooms and appliances are worthy or unworthy. How, then, has England treated lessons? Let the class-rooms in all their meanness answer. Then what class-rooms ought to be was shown, and examples brought forward of pictorial teaching. The way in which walls can be decorated without the painter going near the wall was explained, and designs for walldecoration given. The treatment of books, and what is needed for books, next claimed attention. Then the effect on language of thinking in shape was dealt with, and the true progress of art by expression ever becoming more vivid in word and painting.

"Thinking in shape and pictorial teaching at once turn all created things into new language for thought. Every created thing becomes, on the spot, a possible new bit of thought, a possible new word born into the world of speech. I throw out, as a suggestion for any master of language, as distinct from a doctorer of words, to examine into the curious fact, that in the last eighty years the English language has in this way doubled itself, by flashing new light into old words, by new combinations of words, by freer use of allusions and metaphors, and by pictorial handling of its material; and that it is practically a new language, in its wonderful increase in power of expression, and the breathing of new life into its shape. For expression goes on forever, as higher life produces higher manifestation of life, feelings, and thought, in human face and form, and again becomes able, by being higher, more sensitive, more sympathizing, not only to see and interpret the new shapes, but to find endless riches of unknown stores of precious discoveries in the old. This is the only true path of progress.

"The pictorial mind first pictures to itself all its own ideas, and

thinks in shape; and, secondly, is ever extracting ideas, new and old, out of the things it sees, picturing to itself all the words it uses, translating and retranslating thought into shape and shape into thought, till all things live and move for it in a universe that is living thought incarnate. The lesson-book is always before it. In city or desert, church or hovel, street or field, with flower, or tree, or cloud, or sun, or animal, or bird, or insect, from end to end of all things, there is the everlasting voice crying, 'He that hath ears to hear let him hear, he that hath eyes to see let him see, for life infinite, language universal, lies at your feet for pleasure and use always.' The pictorial mind is the only power man has that is capable of infinite progress. It is the only power that belongs to all men. It is the only power that is within reach of the poor. It can be taught. It can almost be created.

"As the world goes on and knowledge increases, it will be more and more impossible to know it all, a thing which was once quite within reach. Every man, however learned, will be narrowed by degrees down to a single subject. But subjects are many. There are a thousand languages, for instance; to know how to speak even half a dozen really well is an achievement; and so on, through the whole range of knowledge. How can any one man cope with this accumulation of facts? Boasts of knowledge, therefore, belong to the nursery level, betokening stupendous ignorance of man's capacity for knowing, and of what there is to know. Let us get out of the nursery and betake ourselves to true progress, and men as they are." But" as long as examinations reign, there can be no true teaching," said Mr. Thring, " and thinking in shape and pictorial teaching find no place."

MENTAL SCIENCE.

Can the Mind attend to Two Things at Once? THIS question has been frequently asked, and variously answered, according to the conception of attention' and of the objects to be attended to. Those who lay stress on the unity of mind regard it as almost evident a priori, that but one concept can occupy the focus of attention at a time, and that, if apparently many are entertained by consciousness at the same moment, it is simply because of the rapidity with which the attention can flit from one to the other. The holders of the opposite view call attention to the fact that in the quickest possible glance, in the flash of an electric spark, we get a view of an object, capable of being analyzed into a series of concepts, and that we saw every one of these as well as any other. A French psychologist, M. Paulhan, has recently stated the problem in its proper aspect, and illustrated the position he takes by some very interesting experiments. What is at one time the sole object of attention, completely filling the field of consciousness, may at another be only a small part of that field. Attention, like the lens of the eye, is now accommodated to act as an instrument of near focus, high magnification, but limited aperture, and again as one of distant focus, small magnifying-power, but wide range. At one time we see the rider and the horse as a single object; at another they are two. Admitting, then, that the object of attention is determined by a subjective element, by interest, by importance, by attractiveness, or what not, it remains to similarly determine the meaning of attention.' Just as memory is, from one point of view, not a single faculty, but a co-ordinated set of separate, individual memories, so attention is capable of various degrees of intensity, of various subdivisions of function. There are currents and undercurrents of attention. The eye may be intently engaged in looking for a friend, while the ear is drinking in the notes of a symphony, and we are suddenly conscious of a draught in the room. Whether or not there is a loss of energy between these occupations is to be determined by experiment.

M. Paulhan wrote the lines of one poem while reciting the words of another. The two series would sometimes get confused, a word, syllable, or prominent letter of the recited verse creeping into the written; but such mistakes soon became rare. The two series are largely strung on separate strings, and proceed in parallel directions. To repeat one poem aloud, and mentally go over the words of another, caused greater confusion.

If we compare the sum of the times necessary to perform each act separately with the time necessary to perform the two together,

we arrive at the law that the simpler the operations (especially in widely disparate senses), the more time is gained in performing them simultaneously, there being a loss of time in doing complex acts at the same moment.

To multiply on paper 7,897,654,987,896,687.786 by 7 took M. Paulhan 62 seconds; to recite 25 lines of 12 feet each, 38 seconds; the sum of which is 100 seconds. To do both together required 98 seconds, so that this is about the complexity at which there is neither gain nor loss. Here is a simpler pair of processes: to write out the product of 1.321,242,131,221,241,211 by 2 required but 11 seconds; to recite a certain couplet, 7 seconds; to do both at once, only 12 seconds, a saving of 6 seconds in 18. The maximum of saving occurs when it takes no longer to do two acts than one; then certainly the two are done at once. This occurred when 421,312,217 was multiplied by 2 while 4 lines of 12 feet each were spoken; each of the processes consuming 6 seconds separately, and no more when performed together.

If the two processes are closely similar, and probably calling into action intimately connected brain-centres, there is a more decided loss. To write out the product of 33,213,442,124,343 by 2 with the left hand while the right does the same for 12,321,443,432,123 by 2, showed a loss of 15 seconds in 38. The right did the multiplication almost twice as rapidly as the left hand.

The following times illustrate the same principle: to write four verses of Alholie' required 22 seconds; to recite eleven verses from de Musset required 31 seconds; to do both at once, only 40 seconds.

The sum of the times necessary to read a selection aloud and to mentally repeat another selection was 33 seconds, while to do both simultaneously required as much as 38 seconds.

An attempt was made to have three series of mental operations go on side by side; to have the left hand writing the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, while the right wrote a verse, and the vocal apparatus recited some lines of poetry. This is a very difficult matter: the two hands tended to work intermittently, and there was much evident hesitation, friction, and loss of time.

We see, then, that the brain-centres, though closely co-ordinated, can so thoroughly acquire the habit of doing their more simple functions that it requires but a small portion of the attention to guide their action, while the rest can be given to the activities of another centre. The more unlike in function the other centre, the better can this subdivision take place. But when the act is complex, it soon requires the total amount of attention at command; and to attempt to do any thing else is a loss of energy. That individuals differ largely in their powers to perform such double acts' goes almost without saying.

ARTICULATED AND SIGN LANGUAGE. - When we wonder at the rapidity with which deaf-mutes spell out their words on their fingers, we are apt to feel that this invention has really diminished the disadvantages of this class of persons almost to a minimum. That such is not the case is vividly suggested by the statistics which a teacher of the deaf-mute has had the patience to gather. He has counted the average number of words which a pupil in his school wrote or spelled on the fingers per day, and finds it to be 1,118 the teacher similarly employs 216, but uses signs equivalent to 861 words daily. It has been estimated that a mother talks 27,000 words to her child in a day. Making due allowance for the habit of forming only parts of sentences which the deaf-mutes cultivate, and also for the suggestiveness of the sign-language (which hearing people really also use in the form of an expressional accompaniment), the comparative meagreness of the deaf-mute's conversation, and slowness with which his mental food can be brought to him, are plainly evident.

known in this country; and it was our intention, in noticing this book, to give some slight idea of his life and thought in so far as they moulded educational doctrine. But in this we have been anticipated by Mr. H. C. Bowen, late principal of Finsbury TrainingCollege. As Mr. Bowen's sketch is inaccessible to American readers, we feel that we are doing them a service in reproducing most of it. Mr. Bowen calls Rosmini the Italian Froebel.'

Antonio Rosmini Serbati was born at Rovereto, in the Italian Tyrol, in 1797. He died at Stresa in 1855. When it is added that he keenly felt and took an active part in the events of his time, these dates above will suffice to show us that his life is worthy of attention, and was not without its trials and exciting episodes.

It was towards the close of 1839 that Rosmini, who had already more than once published the results of his study of psychology, undertook his work on pedagogy. It appears that a pious and generous lady of Stresa, Anna Maria Bolongaro, had offered to intrust to the Institute of the Brethren of Charity (the order founded by Rosmini) the management of an elementary school which her grandfather had founded in that place. The offer was accepted, and Rosmini set to work to compose a complete treatise on pedagogy. The Ruling Principle of Method applied to Education is that part of it which he accomplished, and it carries us very nearly to the end of the kindergarten age. To quote from Francesco Paoli's preface to the original edition, Rosmini based his treatise directly upon anthropology and psychology, which give us the knowledge of the human faculties which we are to educate, and their modes of action; on idealogy and ethics, which point out the objects, both proximate and ideal, by which the human faculties must be stimulated in order to be properly educated; and on ontology and theology, which provide the knowledge of the ends towards which the human faculties should harmoniously develop, to find in them rest and full satisfaction, which is the ultimate goal of human education." Rosmini divides life, not into periods of years, but into stages or degrees of cognition, the successive acts of the understanding (intellezioni) through which the human mind advances in the development of its powers. The first period extends up to the first smile (roughly, a period of about six weeks), and possesses no definite cognitions, except the primary and fundamental cognition or intuition of being (the innate assurance that something is). It possesses also what Rosmini calls the fundamental feeling,' or that generally diffused feeling of our own bodies which, though it is not as yet attended to, constitutes us sentient beings. The cognitions of the second period, which extends up to the first articulate word (roughly, till the end of the first year), consist of the simple perception of things as subsisting, with corresponding volitions, termed by Rosmini affective' or 'instinctive,' which have these things for their object. Speech is the sign that the child has entered upon the third period of life, or the second order of cognitions, this order being formed by the child's analyzing the cognitions of the first order, and by his abstracting the more interesting, sensible qualities of things from the ideas of these things in his mind (imaginal ideas); and to these correspond the affective volitions, which have for their object these more interesting qualities abstracted from the actual things, and marked off from the things' other qualities, to which the appetitive faculty is at present indifferent. The third order of cognitions shows itself when the child begins to learn to read, say, at the end of the third year. We have now the exercise of the judging faculty, which has become able to connect by synthesis the elements of the previous analysis, and to affirm the existence in a subject of the qualities before abstracted. The corresponding volitions are the estimative or prizing volitions, by which the mind recognizes in a thing its interesting qualities, and thus estimates them. This is soon followed by the cognitions of the fourth order, which introduce analysis once more, as far as is necessary for forming comparisons between two objects judged of, and giving the preference to one over the other. The volitions belonging to this order are the appreciative, or the volitions of choice. The moral sense, which existed in germ in the preceding periods, now takes a larger development. The cognitions of the fifth order consist in a synthesis by which are determined the relations existing between two things combined into one, and conceived as one, of which conceptions the most important is that of the 'I' and of self-identity, About this