two clerks, who keep a record of the names of those voting, in order to prevent "repeating." In villages and cities of over eight hundred population, the law requires a registration of voters before election day, to prevent repeating and other election frauds.

In our form of government very much depends on an intelligent and pure nomination of candidates for office and on an enlightened and clean vote at the election. "The fate of republican government," says Hart, "depends upon the ability of the people to express their will without influence or fraud. To stuff registration lists with fictitious names, to miscount the votes, to throw out legal votes on small technicalities, to accept ballots made up in defiance of the provisions of law-these are betrayals of republican government in the hands of its friends."1

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. What does Bryce consider the effect of universal suffrage to be? 2. What are the three ways of nominating candidates for office? 3. State the election duties of the county auditor.

4. State the need of nominations.

5. Explain in detail the old way of nominating candidates in this State.

6. What is the name of this system? What did it lead to? 7. Define and describe fully, the boss, ring, and machine. 8. Did the boss have a real public service to perform? Why? 9. Give in detail the provisions of the Primary Election Law of this State: aim, date of primary election held, what offices affected, methods of making nominations.

10. What is the second function of the primary election? Explain the existing committee system.

11. How are judges nominated?

1 Hart, "Actual Government," p. 85.

12. How are United States Senators nominated?

13. How is the President nominated?

14. Do cities have a primary election?

15. Is a primary election nomination a party nomination? Explain.

16. How may a citizen secure a nonpartisan nomination for office? 17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this method? 18. Describe a political campaign.

19. Discuss the election: qualifications of voters (two classes); the ballot; officers of election; need of and significance of clean elections.

QUESTIONS SUGGESTED BY THE TEXT

1. Discuss (a) evils, and (b) benefits of political parties.

2. Should we have nonpartisan nominations? Is this possible? 3. State the arguments for and against "independent" nominations.

4. What is the ideal way of nominating candidates for office? 5. Should we elect a boss? Reasons for and against.

6. Compare the oid way and the new way of making nominations in North Dakota.

REFERENCES

For Election Laws, see "North Dakota Code," 1905, Ch. 8; Session Laws, 1907, Ch. 109; Session Laws, 1909, Ch. 32.

For a general discussion of the party system, the machine, rings, and bosses, see Bryce, "American Commonwealth," Vol. 2, Chs. 53-75; Hart; "Actual Government," Chs. 4, 5.

CHAPTER XXIV

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

"The legislative assembly shall provide for raising revenue sufficient

to defray the expenses of the State for each year. ficient sum to pay the interest on the State debt." tution, Sec. 174.

and also a sufState Consti

Introductory. For what purposes may a State properly spend money? Many great thinkers have tried in vain to show what are the "proper functions of the State." As yet very few principles governing this question have been established. Expenditures must be constitutional; they must be for a public purpose. Expenditures for the legislative, executive, and judicial branches are of course necessary and proper. Other expenditures are frequently made, and each case, as it comes before the legislative assembly, must be settled on its own merits. For instance, may the State own and operate a street railway? Yes, the State has done so, at Bismarck. May the State manufacture and sell commodities to the farmers? The State does manufacture and sell binder twine, in connection with the State prison.

A similar question arises as to State revenue; what is a proper source of income? Where shall the money come from? This too must be settled by the legislature. In this chapter we shall merely examine and classify the objects of expenditure, and likewise study and classify the sources of

income. But the student will bear in mind that the objects of expenditure and the sources of income are not fixed, but vary somewhat from decade to decade as the State grows older and new conditions arise.

1. Expenditures.-There is a limit, fixed by the constitution, to the amount which the State may expend; for the taxes laid by the legislature must not "exceed in any one year four (4) mills on the dollar of the assessed valuation of all taxable property in the State," in addition to enough money to pay the interest on the small State debt. As we shall note under "Sources of Revenue" below, the State has a large income from other sources than taxation, and this must be added to the four-mill tax limit to find the actual limitation on expenditures. The constitution limits the objects as well as the amount of expenditures. Money cannot be used for private purposes, or to assist in internal improvements. This important clause of the constitution reads as follows: "Section 185. Neither the State, nor any county, city, township, town, school district nor any other political subdivision shall loan or give its credit or make any donations to or in aid of any individual, association or corporation, except for necessary support of the poor, nor subscribe to or become the owner of the capital stock of any association or corporation, nor shall the State engage in any work of internal improvement unless authorized by a twothirds vote of the people." Since "internal improvements" include wagon roads, the State cannot assist the county or township in constructing good roads, unless authorized so to do by a two-thirds vote of the people.

These constitutional limitations on the amount and

objects of expenditure have been placed on the legislative assembly because the experience of other States, without such limitations, has been full of bitter lessons. If these limitations are too narrow, they can be changed by amending the constitution.

Objects of expenditure.-The expenditures of the State may be classified under fifteen heads, as shown on the table below.