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prior to this period, all the public deeds of the 1 talian and other cities of Europe had been written upon paper made of the Egyptian papyrus, but after that upon parchment. About the end of the roth century, a confiderable revolution took place in India, by the conquefts of Mahmud Gazni, who erected the empire of GAZNA.

(10.) INDIA, HISTORY OF, TO THE END OF THE GAZNIAN EMPIRE. The authentic hiftory of Hindoóftan, as given by the Indian hiftorians, is reckoned to commence with the conquefts of Mahmud Gazni. All before that period, Major Rennel thinks, is not to be depended on. Mahmud's kingdom had arifen out of that of the Saracens, who had extended their conquests immensely, under the Khalif Al-Walid, both to the E. and W. Mahmud was the 3d from Abillagi, a governor of Khorafan, who had revolted from the king of Buckharia. He poffeffed great part of the ancient BACTRIA. GAZNA, near the fource of the Indus, and BALKH, were his chief cities. After conquering the rest of Bactria, he invaded Hindoottant, A. D. 1000, and reduced the province of Moultan, which was inhabited by the Kuttry and Rajpoot tribes, (the Catheri and Malli of Alexander,) who ftill retained their ancient bravery, and made a very formidable refiftance. Mahmud being equally influenced by a love of conqueft and a fuperftitious zeal to exterminate the Hindoo religion, a league was at laft formed against him among all the Indian princes, from the Ganges to the Nerbudda. Their allied troops were, however, defeated, and in 1008 the famous temple of Nagracut in the Panjab was destroyed. In 1011, Mahmud deftrov.

of the weft, on which account their fovereign was called the King of Wisdom. The fuperftitions, extravagant penances, &c. known to exift at this day among the Indians, are alfo mentioned by those writers; all which particulars manifeft that the Arabians had a knowledge of India far fuperior to that of the Greeks or Romans. The induftry of the Mohammedans, in exploring the most diftant regions of the eaft, was rivalled by the Chriftians of Perfia, who fent miffionaries all over India and the countries adjoining, as far as China itself. But while the western Afiatics thus kept up a conftant intercourse with these parts, the Europeans had in a manner loft all knowledge of them. The port of Alexandria, from which they had formerly been fupplied with the Indian goods, was now shut against them; and the Arabs, fatisfied with fupplying the demands of their own fubjects, neglected to fend any by the ufual channels to the towns on the Mediterranean. The inhabitants of Conftantinople and fome other great towns were supplied with Chinese commodities by the moft tedious and difficult paffage imaginable. The filk of that country was purchafed in the moft wefterly province named Chenfi; from thence it was conveyed by a caravan, which marched 80. or 100 days, to the banks of the Oxus. Here it was embarked, and carried down the river to the Cafpian fea; whence, after a dangerous voyage acrofs that fea, it was carried up the river,Cyrus as far as it is navigable; after which it was conducted by a land-carriage of five days to the river Phatis, then down that stream into the Euxine, and thence to Conftantinople. The paffage of goods from Hin dooftan was lefs tedious; being carried either died the city and temple of Tanafar, and reduced rectly to the Cafpian or to the Oxus, but by a paffage much fhorter than that from China; after which they were conveyed down the Phafis to the Euxine, and thus to Conftantinople. A trade thus carried on must have been liable to a thoufand disadvantages. The goods conveyed over fuch vast tracts of land could not be fold but at a very high price, even fuppofing the journey had been attended with no danger; but as the caravans were continually expofed to the aflaults of barbarians, the price must on that account have been greatly enhanced. In fpite of every difficul ty, however, this commerce flourished, and Conftantinople became a confiderable mart for Eaft Indian commodities; and from it all the reft of Europe was chiefly fupplied with them for more than two centuries. The perpetual hoftilities in which the Chriftians and Mohammedans were during this period engaged, contributed ftill to increafe the difficulty; but the more this difficulty increased, the more defirous the Europeans feemed to be of poffeffing the luxuries of Afia. About this time the cities of Amalfi and Venice, with fome others in Italy, having acquired a great degree of independence, began to exert themselves in promoting domeftic manufactures, and importing the productions of India, in much larger quantities than formerly. Some traces of this revival of a commercial spirit, according to Dr Robertfon, may be obferved from the end of the 7th century. But during the 7th and 8th centuries, it is very probable that no commercial intercourfe whatever took place betwixt Italy and Alexandria; for,

Delhi. In 1018 he took Canoge, and demolish-
ed the temples of that and feveral other cities:
but failed in his attempts on Agimere. In his
12th expedition in 1024, he reduced the whole
penintula of Guzerat, and deftroyed the famous
temple of Sumnaut, as well as thofe of all the
other cities he conquered. At his death in 1028
he poffeffed the E. and largest part of Perfia, with
the Indian provinces from the W. part of the
Ganges to Guzerat, and those between the Indus
and the mountains of Agimere. In 1158, this ex-
tenfive empire began to fall to pieces. The W
and largeft part was feized by the Gauri, while
the E. contiguous to the Indus, remained in the
poffeffion of Cufroe, whofe capital was Lahore
În 1184 his fons were expelled by the Gauri, and
in 1194 Mohammed Gori penetrated into Hindoo
ftan as far as Benares, committing as great devaf
tation as Mahmud Gazni had done. He alfo re
duced the S. part of Agimere, and the territory S
of the Jumna, the fort of Gualior, &c. On hi
death in 1205, the empire of Gazna was again di
vided, and the PATAN or Alghan empire wa
founded by Cuttun, who had the Indian part, the
Perfian remaining to Eldoze. Cuttub made Del
hi his capital; and in 1210 his fucceffor, Altumish
reduced the greatest part of Hindooftan Proper
One of his fons obtained the government of Ben
gal, and from this period, one of the emperor's fon
had always that government. During his reign, th
bloodyJENGHIz khan put an end to the other branc
of the Gaznian empire, as related under the artic
GAZNA, but Hindooslan was left undisturbed.
(11.) INDIA

city, maffacred moft of the people, and fold the reft for flaves. The spoils, in plate and jewels, were immenfe. After this dreadful carnage, Tamerlane marched through the other provinces of Hindooftan, every where defeating the Indians, and flaughtering the worshippers of fire. On the 25th of March this bloody conqueror retired, leaving Mahmud in poffeffion of the throne, referving only Panjab to himself.

(11.) INDIA, HISTORY OF, TO ITS CONQUEST BY TAMERLANE. The kingdom of Malwa, which had been reduced in 1205 by Cuttub, thook of the yoke in 1265, and the Rajpoots revolted. The most dreadful confufion and maffacres followed, from this period almoft to the time that the Britith government commenced. The empire being fubdivided among a fet of rapacious governors, the people were reduced to the loweft degree of mifery. To add to their diftrefs, the MOGULS made fuch frequent and formidable invafions, that at laft the emperor Ferofe II. allowed them to fet tle in the country, in 1292. The emperor was incited by Alla, governor of Gurrah, to attempt the conqueft of the Deccan; and Alla being employed in that bufinefs, wherein he amaffed an immenfe quantity of treasure, no fooner accomplifhed it, than he depofed and murdered Ferofe, and affumed the fovereignty of Hindooftan. After this he reduced the forts of Guzerat, Ratanpour, and Cheitore; and in 1303, the city of Warangole, capital of Tellingala. After this the remain der of Malwa was fubdued; in 1306 the conqueft of the Deccan was undertaken; and in 1310, Alla carried his army into Dowlatabad and the Carsatic. But all this ufurper's expeditions, and thofe of his general Cafoor, feem to have been made more with the view of plunder, than of permanent conqueft. The quantity of riches Cafoor amaffed was fo great, that it is faid that his foldiers carried away only the gold, leaving the filver behind as too cumbersome. In 1322, feveral places rebelled, but were reduced, and the Carnatic ravaged from sea to fea, in 1326, when Alla died. His fucceffors were not able to retain the dominions he left. Under Mohammed III. the inhabitants of the Deccan revolted, and drove the Mahometans completely out of all their territories, except the city of Dowlatabad. In 1344, Belal des, king of the Deccan, who had headed the revolt, founded the city of BISNAGUR. Many proFinces in Bengal, Guzerat, and Panjab, alfo revolt Ferofe III. who fucceeded Mohammed in st, was a wife prince, who preferred the improvement of his empire by the arts of peace, to the extenfion of it by war and conqueft. In his reign, which lafted 37 years, agriculture, com!merce, and manufactures, were encouraged. But upon his death, in 1388, a civil war broke out, which continued 5 years, till Mahmud III. fucceeded in 1393. During this period Hindooftan exhibited the uncommon phenomenon of two emperors refiding in the fame capital, yet at war with each other. In this unfortunate fituation of faire, TAMERLANE, after fubduing all the W. of Tartary and Afia, turned his arms against Hindottan, and made an eafy conqueft of it. But the bloody monfter, not contented with his victo y, ordered a general maffacre of the inhabitants, in confequence of which, it is faid, that 100,000 of them were murdered in one hour. In January 1399, be defeated the Indian army, with great laughter, and foon after took the city of Delhi, (See DELHI, N° 2.) which then confifted of 3 cities, furrounded by walls. Though no refiftance was made, and of courfe there was no pretence for bloodshed, yet a quarrel was picked within a few days by his Tartar foldiers, who pillaged the VOL. XII. PART I,

(12.) INDIA, HISTORY OF, TO THE INVASION BY SHAH NADIR. The death of Mahmud III. in 1413, put an end to the Patan dynafty. He was fucceeded by Chizer, a defcendant of Mahomet the impoftor, and his pofterity continued to reign, till 1450, when Alla II. abdicated the throne, and Belloli, an Alghan, took poffeffion of it. Under him a prince who refided at Jionpour became fo formidable, that he left him only the fhadow of authority. Belloli's fon, however, recovered a great part of the empire, about 1501, when he made Agra his refidence. In the reign of Ibraham II. Sultan Baber, a defcendant of Tamerlane, conquered a confiderable part of the empire. His first expedition was in 1518, and in 1525 he took Delhi. On the death of Baber, who reigned only 5 years, his fon Humaioon was driven from the throne, and obliged to take shelter among the Rajpoot princes of Agimere. The fovereignty was ufurped by Sheer khan, who in 1545 was killed at the fiege of Cheitore. His territories extended from the Indus to Bengal; but the government was fo unfettled, than no fewer than 5 fovereigns fucceeded within 9 years after his death. This induced a strong party to join in recalling Humaioon; who is said to have been a prince of great virtue and abilities; but he lived only one year after his return. Upon his death, in 1555, his fon Acbar fucceeded, whom Mr Rennel efteems one of the greatest princes that ever reigned in Hindooftan. He was then only 14 years of age, but during his long reign of 51 years, he established the empire on a more fure foundation than it had probably ever been before. His firft years were spent in reducing the revolted provinces, and in fecuring their future obedience, not only by appointing faithful governors, but by attending to the rights and privileges of the people, and establishing an unlimited toleration in religion. In 1585, he invaded the Deccan; but though the war continued 20 years, the only progrefs made was the reduction of Candeih, Tellingana, the W. part of Berar, and the N. part of Amednagur. The city of AMEDNAGUR was taken in 1601, after a tedious and bloody fiege. Under his fucceffor, Jehan Guire, the war was faintly carried on, the empire being disturbed by his rebellious fon, Shah Jehan, and his councils diftracted by the influence of his miftrefs, Noor Jehan. In this monarch's reign, Sir Thomas Roe, the firft Britifh ambaffador at the court of Hindooftan, arrived. Jehan Guire died in 1627, and was fucceeded by his fon Shah Jehan, who pushed the conqueft of the Deccan with vigour, but in fo deftructive a manner, that moft of the princes fubmitted. A war next broke out with the Portuguese, which ended in their expulfion from Hoogly Shah Jehan was a very wicked and debauched prince; and his rebellion against his father was retaliated by

M

that

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an omrah in high truft, prevented this. A new civil war took place, in which Jehan was killed. The two furviving brothers tried their fortune in a 3d battle, in which Jehauder, the eldest, being victor, took poffeffion of the throne; but in nine months was dethroned by Furroksere, the son of Azem Oofhaun; affifted by Houffein Ali khan and Abdoollah khan, two brothers, who had extenfive governments in the Eastern provinces. In 1713, the Seiks again took arms, and, in 1716, were grown fo formidable, that the emperor marched against them. About this time, the Englifh Eaft India Company obtained the famous Firman, or grant, by which their goods of export and import were exempted from duties. Furrokfere was depofed and murdered by the brothers Houffein and Abdoollah, who fet up another emperor, whom they also depofed and murdered in the fame year: and thus in 11 years after AurengZebe's death, 11 of his pofterity, who had either poffeffed or been competitors for the throne, were exterminated; and the government declined fo rapidly, that the empire feemed ready to fall to pieces. In 1718, the two brothers raised to the throne Mohammed Shah, the grandíon of Bahader; who, warned by the fate of his predeceffors, foon rid himself of thefe two powerful subjects, though at the expense of a civil war. But new enemies ftarted up. Nizam Al Mulek, viceroy of the Deccan, in 1722, had been offered the place of Vizier, or prime minifter, but did not accept it. Independence was his aim, and the increafing power of the Mahrattahs furnished him with a pretence for augmenting his army. Perfuaded that he had a party at court, he, in 1738, came thither, with a great body of armed followers; but finding that the intereft of the emperor was still too powerful for him, he invited the famous Perfian Ufurper, NADIR Shah, or KOULI Khan, to invade Hindooftan. This villanous invitation was readily accepted, and Nadir entered the country without oppofition.

that of his fon, AURENG-ZEBE, who dethroned him. Aureng-Zebe disguised his ambition under the mask of religion, and committed the greatest crimes under that pretence. He engaged in a war with his brothers, Morad and Dara, whom he defeated and put to death, and then pretended to lament their misfortune. He, however, treated his father with tenderness till his death in 1666. From 1660, when Aureng-Zebe attained full pof,feffion of the throne, till 1678, a profound tranquillity prevailed throughout the empire; but from a jealoufy of Sevagee, the founder of the Mahratta ftate, he undertook the conqueft of the Deccan and having quelled a rebellion of the Patans beyond the Indus, he perfecuted the Hindoos fo feverely, that the Rajpoot tribes in Agimere commenced a war againft him. In this war, having headed his armies in perfon, he was hemmed in among the mountains, and would have been taken prifoner, had not the Rajpoots generoufly allowed him to escape, as well as his em prefs, whom they actually had taken prisoner. This did not prevent him from renewing his incurfions into that country, in 1681. He took and razed Checture, committing great devaftations, and destroying the Hindoo temples and idols every where; but was at last obliged to abandon his perfecutions, and allow the Hindoos to remain in peace. He reduced the greatest part of the Deccan, and even during the last five years of his life was employed in the field. His long abfence from his capital occafioned rebellions to break out in various parts; and about this period the JATS, or Jauts, firft made their appearance in the province of Agra. At his death, in 1707, his empire extended from 10° to 35° Lat. and nearly as many degrees in Lon." His revenue," fays Major Rennel, “exceeded 35,000,000 l. fterling, in a country where provifions are about four times as cheap as in England. But fo weighty a fceptre could be wielded only by a hand like Aureng-Zebe's; and accordingly in so years after his death, a fucceffion of weak princes and wicked minifters reduced this aftonishing empire to nothing." He left four fons; Maufum, Azem, Kaum-Bufh, and Acbar. This laft had rebelled against his father, and been obliged to fly to Perfia 30 years before. A civil war commenced between Maufum and Azem; and a decifive battle was fought, wherein 300,000 men were engaged on each fide, and Azem was defeated and killed. Maufum then affumed the title of Babader Shab, and, during his fhort reign of 5 years, gave proofs of confiderable abilities. He defeated and killed his brother Kaum Bufh; after which he reduced the SEIKS, a new fect of religionifts, who, in the reign of Shah Jehan, had filently established themselves along the eaftern mountains, and had now taken up arms in Lahore, ravaging the country to the banks of the Jumnah. Bahader Shah died at Lahore, after a short illness, and the empire was again contefted among his 4 fons. Of thefe the 2d, named Azem Ofbaan, took poffeffion of the treasures, but was oppofed by his brothers, who agreed to divide the empire. Azem was defeated and killed, in a battle gained chiefly by the valour of Shah Jehan, the youngest, who was willing to abide by the agreement. But the intrigues of Zoolfecar khan,

(13.) INDIA, HISTORY OF, TO THE WAR BETWEEN THE FRENCH AND BRITISH, IN 1748. Nadir Shah, though far advanced into Hindooftan, yet confidered the issue of matters to be fo uncertain, that he offered to evacuate the country and retire for 50 lacks of rupees, about half a million fterling. The intrigues of the Nizam and his party hindered the emperor from complying with this demand; inftead of which he abfurdly threw himfelf upon the ufurper's mercy, who then took poffeffion of Delhi, and demanded a ranfom of 30 millions fterling. After a conference with the emperor, Nadir feized upon 200 cannon, with fome treasure and jewels, which he fent off to Candahar. He then marched back to Delhi, where a mob arofe about the price of corn. While Nadir endeavoured to quell it, a mufket was fired at him, which narrowly miffed him; whereupon the barbarian ordered a general maffacre of the inhabitants, which his bloody troops inftantly executed, and flaughtered 120,000, or, according to fome, 150,000 perfons. This was followed by a feizure of all the jewels, plate, &c. which could be found; befides exacting the 30 millions, which was done with the utmost rigour; infomuch that many of the inhabitants killed themselves to avoid

the

India, from the 12th century to this important period.

the tortures to which those were subjected, who were not able to raife the money demanded of them. During thefe horrid scenes, Nadir caufed the marriage of his fon to be celebrated with a grand-daughter of Aureng-Zebe; and after having extorted all that he demanded, took leave of the emperor, with profeffions of friendship, putting the crown on his head with his own hand, and giving him advice with regard to his government. This bloody tyrant left Delhi on the 6th May, 1739, after maffacring about 200,000 perfons, and carrying off goods and treasure to the value of 123 millions fterling. Mohammed had alfo ceded to him all the provinces of Hindooftan W. of the Indus. The villanous Nizam possessed almost all the remaining power of the empire, which he employed to establish himself in the fovereignty of the Deccan. Bengal had become independent in 1738, under Aliverdy Cawn, and was not long af ter invaded by a vaft army of Mahrattahs in the mperor's name, who, not being able to pay them harrears of tribute, fent them to Bengal to colet it themfelves. About the fame time, the Rolas, a tribe from the mountains between India and Perfia, erected an independent ftate on the E. of the Ganges, 80 miles from Delhi. The empire med now to be running faft to its diffolution. Nadir Shah being murdered, Abdallah, one of his merals, feized on the E. part of Perfia, and the adjacent Indian provinces which Mohammed Shab had ceded to Nadir, and formed them into the kingdom of Candahar, or Abdalli. (See CANDAA.) In 1739, Mohammed Shah died, and was fucceeded by his fon Ahmed; during whofe reign, which lafted only 6 years, the divifion of the re mainder of the empire took place; and nothing mained to the family of Tamerlane, but a fmall rt of territory round Delhi. The Jats etashed themfelves in Agra; Oude was feized on Seifdar Jang, father of the late Sujah Dowlah; babad by Mohammed Kouli; Agimere revertod to its ancient lords the Rajpoots; Malivah was rided between the Poonah Mahrattahs, and feal native Zemindars; and the Mahrattahs, beat their dominion in the Deccan, poffeffed the Fateft part of Berar, Guzerat, and Oriffa. Ab. ah having eftablished his empire of Candahar, tered Lahore and Moultan: and now" the whole country of Hindooftan (fays Major Rennel) is commotion, each party fearing the machiis or attacks of the other; fo that all regugovernment was at an end, and villany was added in every form. Perhaps in the annale the world it has feldom happened, that the rad of government were fo fuddenly diffolover a portion of country containing at least mions of inhabitants." In 1748, the Nizam A Malek died at the age of 104; and was fucded by his fon, Nazirjung, to the prejudice of elder brother Gazi, vizier to the nominal emThe conteft that followed on this occafion, the throne of the Deccan, and the nabobthip Arcot, firft engaged the British and French to a auxiliaries on oppofite fides. But before proceed to the hiftory of the war that ensued, proper to take a retrospective view of the vaevolutions that took place in the trade to

(14.) INDIA, HISTORY OF THE EUROPEAN TRADE WITH, FROM THE 12TH TO THE 18TH CENTURY. The mutual antipathy which the Chriftians and Mohammedans bore against each other, long retarded commerce between them; but at laft the caliphs, perceiving the advantages of fuch a traffic, were induced to allow it, while the eagerness with which the Chriftians coveted the Indian products and manufactures, prompted them to carry it on. But fcarce was the traffic begun, when it seemed in danger of being totally interrupted by the crufades. (See CROISADES.) Notwithstanding the enthusiastical zeal of these adventurers, however, there were many to whom commerce was a greater object than religion. This had always been the cafe with numbers of the pilgrims who visited the holy places at Jerufà, lem even before the commencement of the crufades: but thefe, after they took place, inftead of retarding the progrefs of this kind of commerce, proved the means of promoting it to a great degree. "Various circumftances (fays Dr. Robertfon) concurred towards this. Great armies, conducted by the moft illuftrious nobles of Europe, and compofed of men of the most enterprising fpirit in all the kingdoms of it, marched towards Palestine, through countries far advanced, beyond those which they left, in every fpecies of improvement. They beheld the dawn of profperity in the republics of Italy, which had begun to vie with each other in the arts of industry, and in their efforts to engross the lucrative commerce with the east. They next admired the more advanced state of opulence, and fplendour in Conftantinople, raised to a pre-eminence above all cities then known by its extenfive trade, particu larly that which it carried on with India and the countries beyond it. They afterwards ferved in thofe provinces of Afia through which the commodities of the eaft were ufually conveyed, and became mafters of feveral cities which had been ftaples of that trade. They established the kingdom of Jerufalem, which fubfifted near 200 years. They took poffeflion of the throne of the Greek empire, and governed it above half a century. Amidft fuch a variety of events and operations, the ideas of the fierce warriors of Europe gradually opened and improved; they became acquainted with the policy and arts of the people whom they fubdued; they obferved the fources of their wealth, and availed themfelves of all this knowledge. Antioch and Tyre, when conquered by the crufaders, were flourishing cities inhabited by opulent merchants, who fupplied all the nations trading in the Mediterranean with the productions of the eaft; and as far as can be gathered from incidental occurrences mentioned by the hiftorians of the holy war, who being moftly priests and monks, had their attention directed to objects very different from thofe relating to commerce, there is reafon to believe, that both in Conftantinople while fubject to the Franks, and in the ports of Syria acquired by the Chriftians, the long eftablished trade with the east continued to be protected and encouraged." Qur author next

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Bows

fhows in what manner the commerce of the Italian ftates was promoted by the Crufades, until at laft, having entirely engroffed the Eaft India trade, they ftrove with fuch eagerness to find new markets for their commodities, that they extended a tafte for them to many parts of Europe where they had formerly been little known. The rivalship of the Italian ftates terminated at laft in a treaty with the fultan of Egypt in 1425, by which the port of Alexandria and others in Egypt were opened to the Florentines as well as the Venetians; and foon after, that people began to obtain a share in the trade to India. The following account of the manner in which the India trade was carried on in the beginning of the 14th century, is given by Marino Sanudo, a Venetian nobleman. The merchants of Venice were fupplied with the commodities they wanted in two different ways. Those of small bulk and great value, fuch as cloves, nutmegs, gems, pearls, &c. were carried up the Perfian gulf to Baffora, thence to Bagdad, and afterwards to fome port on the Mediterranean. The more bulky goods, fuch as pepper, cinnamon, and other spiceries, were brought in the ufual manner to the Red fea, and thence to Alexandria. The goods brought by land, however, were always liable to be seized by barbarians; and therefore the fupply that way was fcanty, and the price extravagantly dear, while, on the other hand, the Sultan of Egypt, by imposing duties upon the Eaft India cargoes to the amount of a full third of the value, feemed to render it impoffible that the owners should find purchafers for their goods. This, however, was far from being the cafe; the demand for India goods contínually increased; and thus a communication, formerly unknown, betwixt all the nations of Europe, was begun and kept up. All this time, however, there had been no direct communication betwixt Europe and India, as the Mohammedans would never allow any Christian to pass through their dominions into that country. The dreadful incurfions and conquefts of the Tartars under Jenghiz khan, however, had fo broken the power of the Mohammedans in the N. of Afia, that a way was now opened to India through the dominions of thefe barbarians. A bout the middle of the 13th century, therefore, Marc Polo, a Venetian, by getting accefs to the khan of the Tartars, explored many parts of the eaft, which had long been unknown even by name to the Europeans. He travelled through China from Peking on its northern frontier to fome of its moft foutherly provinces. He visited alfo different parts of Hindooftan, and first mentions Bengal and Guzerat by their modern names, as great and flou rifhing kingdoms. He obtained alfo fome account of an island which he called Zipangri; (probably Japan;) he visited Java and feveral neighbouring iflands; Ceylon, and the coaft of Malabar as far as the Gulf of Cambay; to all which he gave the names they have at this day. The difcovery of fuch immenfe regions unknown before in Europe, furnished vaft room for speculation and conjecture; and while the public attention was yet engaged by thefe difcoveries, the deftruction of Conftantinople by the Turks gave a very confiderable turn to the East India commerce, by throwing it almost entirely into the hands of the Vene.

tians. Hitherto the Genoefe had rivalled that ft in this commerce, and had poffeffed themfel of many important places on the coaft of Gree as well as the port of Caffa on the Black fea. Na they had even eftablished themselves at Conftan nople, in the suburb of Pera, in such a manner almoft entirely to exclude the Greeks themfel from any fhare in this commerce; but by the ftruction of Conftantinople they were driven of all thefe poffeffions, and fo thoroughly humble that they could no longer contend with the W netians; fo that, during the latter part of the 15 century, that republic fupplied the greater part Europe with the productions of the eaft, and ca ried on trade to an extent far beyond what b been known in former times. The mode in whi they now carried on this trade was fomewhat d ferent from what had been practised by ancie nations. The Tyrians, Greeks, and Romans, h failed directly to India in queft of the commo ties they wanted; and their example has be imitated by the navigators of modern Europe. both periods the Indian commodities were pa for in gold and filver; and great complaints we made on account of the drain of these precio metals, which were thus buried in India, never return. The Venetians, however, were exempt from this lofs; for having no direct intercour with India, they fupplied themselves from th warehouses they found in Egypt and Syria, read filled with the precious commodities they wanted and these they purchased more frequently by bart than with ready money. Thus not only ther public of Venice, but all the cities which we emporia for the India goods imported by it, we raised to fuch a pitch of power and fplendor fcarce ever belonged to any European ftate. T citizens of Bruges, from which place the oth European nations had been long fupplied wi thefe goods, difplayed fuch magnificence in the drefs, buildings, and manner of living, as excit the envy of their queen, Joan of Navarre, when f visited them. On the removal of the staple fro Bruges to Antwerp, the latter foon difplayed t fame opulence; and in fome cities of German particularly Augsburgh, the great mart for Indi commodities in that country, some merchants a quired fuch large fortunes as entitled them high rank in the empire. The most accurate m thod, however, of attaining fome knowledge the profits the Venetians had on their trade, is confidering the rate of interest on money borro ed at that time. This, from the clofe of the r century to the commencement of the 16th, was lefs than 20 per cent, and sometimes more. Ev as late as 1500, it was 10 or 12 in every part Europe. Hence we may conclude, that the prof of money applied in trade had been then extreme high; and the condition of the inhabitants Venice at that time warrants us to make the co clufion. "In the magnificence of their hou (fays Dr Robertson,) in richness of furniture, profufion of plate, and in every thing which tributed either towards elegance or parade in the mode of living, the nobles of Venice furpaffed ftate of the greateft monarch beyond the Alps. was all this difplay the effect of an oftentatious a inconfiderate diffipation; it was the natural com

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