consists of a rubber plate fastened to the concave base of the reservoir. To the center of this plate is attached the lever, and by the action of the latter the plate is raised and lowered and the air above the plate compressed and forced into the reservoir through the curved tube shown in the figure (See Fig. 64). The escape of the air at the base of the reservoir answers the purpose of an agitator. The nozzle is the Noël modification of the Riley type. The price of the apparatus is about 60 francs.

The final class of machines for spraying to which attention will be drawn is that in which the pump is entirely separate from the reservoir, being connected with the latter by a rubber hose. These pumps are in general harder to work and less effective than the other forms described in which the pump is solidly fixed to the reservoir. However, in certain localities, particularly in the Bordelais district, the syringe pumps are very well thought of by the vineyardists.

B

FIG. 159.-The syringe pump of the Gretillat apparatus. (From Viala et Ferrouillat.)

As a type of these pumps the Gretillat apparatus, called the "Rapid," may be noted. The knapsack reservoir will contain about 12 liters, and is connected by means of a rubber tube with the syringe pump shown at Fig. 159. The nozzle (Fig. 160) is of the colliding-jet type and may be adjusted by turning the stopcock to deliver a single stream, to free it of any solid body. This apparatus has been employed widely and successfully in Bordelais for several years. Its price is 30 francs with copper reservoir, or 26 francs with zinc reservoir. Other machines of this class are manufactured by Japy Frères, Bourdil, Vermorel, and others.

FIG. 160.-The Gretillat nozzle. (From Viala et Ferrouillat.)

It will be observed that the knapsack pumps range in capacity from 12 to 15 liters, the latter amount being about the limit that can be easily carried by a workman. Of the different materials of which the reservoirs are constructed, the red copper is very resistant and is not generally altered by contact with cupric mixtures; brass is less durable, but may be used without injury with the Bordeaux mixture.

For Eau Celeste, and even the sulphate of copper, the reservoir should be of red copper or of brass covered with lead.

If the rubber lining proves satisfactory it may be used with advantage in connection with the acid solutions of sulphate of iron in

the winter treatment of anthracnose, since the red copper even is affected by this solution.

The nozzles are commonly of copper and also of hardened caoutchouc, the latter being especially of service in spraying the acid sulphate of iron. Metal nozzles are rapidly acted on by this substance and ruined.

PART III.-WINE-MAKING.

By C. L. MARLATT.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

The manufacture of wines has an importance in France which it attains nowhere else, and the true Frenchman is as jealous of the reputation of the grand wines of Bordeaux, Bourgogne, and Champagne as he is of "La belle France" herself. The study of the processes and methods of wine-making has been prosecuted by the intelligent vineyardists of France for centuries, and the literature of the subject has grown to enormous proportions.

The Frenchman is fond of his native wines and neglects no opportunity to improve them or to extol their supreme merits and excellencies, and as a matter of fact he is supported in this last by the judgment of the world. That cheap and comparatively inferior wines-second and third wines, raisin wines, etc., and the poorer wines of certain sections-are also produced is admitted, and when these are disposed of under their true character, as the law compels in France, no objection can be raised.

The adulteration of wines by unscrupulous wine merchants and middlemen in this country as well as in France, or the disposal of inferior wines, second wines, or raisin wines under false labels, is nowhere deplored more than in France by those who have the reputation of the vine industry of the country at heart, and the French Government has passed stringent regulations to prevent falsification of wine within her borders for the protection, at least, of home consumers.

*

*FALSIFICATION OF WINES IN FRANCE.

REPORT BY CONSUL DUFAIS, OF HAVRE.
[Consular Reports, August, 1889, No. 107.]

The official journal of the French Government, of the 15th instant, promulgates a new and important law on the falsification of wines, of which I have the honor to forward herewith a translation.

UNITED STATES CONSULATE,

F. F. DUFAIS, Consul.

Havre, August 20, 1889.

LAW OF THE 14TH OF AUGUST, 1889, REGARDING WINES.

The Senate and Chamber of Deputies having adopted, the President of the Re public promulgates the following law:

The student of cenology and particularly the ambitious American grape-grower will, therefore, naturally turn to France and examine her methods if he wishes to familiarize himself with the secrets of an art which though old doubtless as man himself, is yet being added to and improved with every year's experience and becoming more and more subject to laws and rules rather than to experiment and trial.

Formerly wine-making was merely an art, and skill in it, together with its secrets, was handed down from father to son; now it has become more of a science than an art, and any one may familiarize

ARTICLE 1. No one can send forth, sell, or offer to sell under the denomination of wine any other product except that made by fermentation from fresh grapes. ART. 2. A mixture of the product by fermentation of the residue (marc) of fresh grapes with an addition of sugar and water with wine, no matter in what proportion, can only be sold, sent forth, or offered for sale under the name of "Wine of sugar" (vin de sucre).

ART. 3. The product of the fermentation of dried raisins with water can only be sent forth, sold, or offered for sale, under the name of "Wine of dried raisins;' it is the same with the mixture of such product with wine, no matter in what proportion.

ART. 4. The casks or other receptacles containing wine of sugar or wine of dried raisins must be marked in large letters "Wine of sugar,' ""Wine of dried raisins." Books, invoices, waybills, bills of lading, have to give the same designations according to the character of the product.

ART. 5. The bills of circulation accompanying the forwarding or shipment of such wine, wine of sugar, wine of dried raisins, must be of a special color. A ministerial degree will regulate the application of these provisions.

ART. 6. In case of infraction of the above articles the delinquents will be punished with a fine of from 25 to 500 francs, and with imprisonment of from ten days to three months. Article 463 of the penal code will be applicable. In cases of repeated delinquencies the sentence of imprisonment will always be pronounced. Tribunals may, according to the gravity of the cases, order the publishing in newspapers or by bill poster in stated places of such sentences at the expense of the delinquent.

ART. 7. Any admixture to wine, wine of sugar, wine of dried raisins, be it at the time of fermentation or afterwards, of the product either by fermentation or distillation of figs, carob bean (or St. John's bread), flower of mowra, bell flower, rice, barley or other saccharine matter, constitutes falsification of alimentary commodities provided for by law of the 27th of March, 1851.

The provisions of this law are applicable to those who falsify, hold, sell, or offer to sell alimentary produce knowing that it is falsified. Such fraudulent alimentary produce is confiscated according to article 5 of the said law. The present law, discussed and adopted by the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, will be enforced as the law of the State.

himself with the many steps of the process deduced both from traditional experience and later scientific researches.

The details of the manufacture of wines as recounted in the following pages are necessarily incomplete, but it is hoped that enough is said to give an intelligent appreciation of the fundamental facts and laws, and to enable those interested to compare their own methods with those practiced in France, and adopt such of the latter as are of value or applicable to the conditions of wine-making in the United States. It has been deemed best to describe the entire process of wine-making, and while various steps and methods will necessarily be detailed with which our progressive vineyardists are already familiar, it is believed that much, also, of value to our winemakers, has by this means been included.

The writer has had access to a large number of the principal French works on wine-making, as well as the leading journals of France devoted to viticulture and vinification, and also the notes of Prof. C. V. Riley resulting from his personal examinations of the methods followed in the celebrated vineyards of central and western France and particularly the Gironde district.

In such a summary treatment of the subject it has been deemed inadvisable to repeatedly note in the text the many authorities consulted. The principal sources of information are mentioned elsewhere. (See p. 31).

The distinct steps in wine-making are: (1) the gathering of the grapes; (2) fermentation; (3) the drawing off of the wine and pressing (cuvaison), and (4) the correction and treatment of the crude product necessary to make a perfect wine.

In addition to these must be understood the influence of climate. soil, culture, variety of grape and maturity at gathering, on the nature of the wine. These last will be first briefly considered.

Climate. In a warm climate such as that of the Midi or Mediterranean regions of France, which includes the lower valley of the Rhône and the borders of the Mediterranean, particularly between Hyères and Vintimille, the grape grows vigorously and produces in the berry a large percentage of sugar. The wine product is, however, lacking in acidity and bouquet and comprises principally the common wines, wines coarse and highly colored, and sweet or strongly alcoholic. Special treatment is necessary to establish a proper equilibrium between the different elements of these wines.

As one approaches the northern limits of the grape regions of France, the proportion of sugar decreases and the acid principles of the grape augment, and in the extreme north, where the grape frequently fails to properly mature, the acid elements (tartaric, tannic, and malic) greatly predominate. The bouquet is also highly developed on account of the low temperature at which fermentation takes place.

Soil. The influence exerted by the soil is less on the character of the wine than it is on the amount of grapes produced. Wines of equal merit are produced on soils of widely differing composition. On very rich soils, however, the wine product, while abundant in quantity lacks in quality; and, on the other hand, poor soils yield the most highly prized wines, and hence it is that soils not capable of other culture are commonly planted to vines.

Other features of soil and subsoil have been dwelt upon by Prof. Riley in the consideration of vine culture.

Cultural Methods.-The methods of culture adopted with a view to improve and perfect the wine product will depend on the particular conditions of the soil and climate, and on the variety of grape grown. Thorough cultivation favors the ripening of the grape and augments the proportion of sugar in the must.

The practice of summer or green pruning has also been followed from time immemorial in many vineyards to hasten or otherwise influence the ripening and to give to the berry a normal composition, and while this practice has the sanction of long traditional experience, certain recent experiments have indicated from an analysis of the must from pruned and unpruned vines that the percentage of sugar and acidity and the density of the must is considerably lessened and the coloration also is less intense in the case of the pruned vines. The loss of foliage, from which the grapes derive their saccharine strength, would lead one to expect a result similar to the above, and in the limited experiments made the maturation was not hastened but retarded, so that the chief object of the green pruning was not accomplished. This indicates that green pruning should only be practiced, if at all, to accomplish some definite change in the composition of the must, which careful experiment has shown will result from such treatment.

Variety of Grape.-The nature of the wine, depends, of course, largely on the variety of grape grown, -the soil, climate, etc., while exerting considerable influence on the product, are important chiefly in determining what variety shall be grown. In general the early ripening sorts are grown in the north, producing wine of fine quality; and in the south later and more prolific, but inferior sorts.

The vineyards contain either a single or several varieties; in the latter case it is a frequent custom to mix the grapes in wine-making. Many of the famous French wines are obtained from a single variety or sometimes a combination of two, rarely three, varieties. The mixing of different varieties is frequently desirable to obtain a must of proper composition. M. Rugier mentions the following grapes as those commonly grown in the different wine districts of France:

Bourgogne, Pineau; Beaujolais, Gamay; Hermitage and surrounding regions, Petite Syrah, associated with a white grape in the