dominions then fell to Seleucus: but several provinces took the opportunity of these confusions to shake off the Macedonian yoke altogether; and thus were formed the kingdoms of Pontus, Bithynia, Pergamus, Armenia, and Cappadocia.

The two most powerful and permanent empires, however, were those of Syria, founded by Seleucus, and Egypt by Ptolemy Soter. The kings of Macedon, though they did not preserve the same authority over the Grecian states that Alexander, Antipater, and Cassander had done, yet effectually prevented them from those outrages upon one another for which they had formerly been so remarkable..

While the eastern parts of the world were thus deluged with blood, the Romans and Carthaginians also proceeded in their attempts to enslave the western nations. About the year 253 B. C. the former had made themselves masters of almost the whole of Italy; but Pyrrhus king of Epirus, in 271 B. C., entered that country, and maintained a war with them for six years. He was finally defeated, however, and the Romans being invited into Sicily, to assist the Marmertines against Hiero II. king of Syracuse and the Carthaginians, they immediately commenced a war with the latter, which continued for twentythree years; and the consequence was the entire loss of Sicily to the Carthaginians; soon after the Romans seized on Sardinia.

Hamilcar now set about the subjugation of Spain; and his son Asdrubal continued the war with success; till at last the Romans engaged him to make the river Iberus the boundary of his conquests.

The transactions of the second Punic war are perhaps the most remarkable recorded in history. We now see the Romans, who for more than 500 years had been constantly victorious, unable to resist the efforts of a single man, until at last, Hannibal, the conqueror of Italy, was obliged to abandon his final designs for want of 20,000 or 30,000 men. Hannibal had concluded an alliance with Philip VI. of Macedonia. Had that prince sent an army to the assistance of the Carthaginians in Italy, immediately after the battle of Cannæ, there can be no doubt but the Romans would have been forced to accept of peace. Philip, however, could not be roused. The issue was that the Carthaginian armies, unsupported in Italy, were recalled into Africa, which the Romans had invaded. Here Hannibal was defeated at the battle of Zama, which finished the second Punic war, in the year 188 B. C.

All this time Egypt, Syria, and Greece, had been promoting their own ruin by mutual wars. The Syrian empire was now governed by Antiochus the Great, and to him Haunibal applied, when he was obliged to leave his country, and the Romans declared war against him. The event was, that Antiochus was every where defeated, and forced to conclude a peace upon very disad

vantageous terms.

The states of Greece, weary of the tyranny of the Macedonians, now entered into the resolution of recovering their liberties. For this purpose was framed the Achæan League; but they at last came to the imprudent determination of

calling in the Romans to defend them. This produced a war in which the latter were victorious; but Perseus, the successor of Philip, renewed the war, until Macedon submitted to the Romans, 167 B. C.

After this, war was declared a third time against the unfortunate Carthaginian state; there was now no Hannibal to command their armies, and Carthage was utterly destroyed in the year 146 B. C. The same year the Romans put an end to the liberties they had pretended to grant the cities of Greece, by the entire destruction of Corinth.

The only transaction of any considerable consequence in the Syrian empire, at this period, is the oppression of the Jews by Antiochus Epiphanes. After their return from the Babylonish captivity, they continued in subjection to the Persians, till the time of Alexander. From that time they were subject to the kings of Egypt or Syria, as the fortune of either happened to prevail. Egypt being reduced by Antiochus Epiphanes, the Jews fell under his dominion; and, being severely treated by him, imprudently showed some signs of joy on a report of his death. This brought him against them with a powerful army; and in 170 B. C. he took Jerusalem by storm, committing the most horrid cruelties on the inhabitants. Their religion was for a while totally abolished, their temple profaned, an image of Jupiter Olympius set up, and a sow sacrificed on the altar of burnt offerings. In 167 B. C., however, Mattathias restored the true worship in most of the cities of Judea; and in 165 the temple was purified by Judas Maccabæus. This was followed by a long series of wars between the Syrians and Jews, in which the latter were almost always victorious. SECT. VII.—FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF CAR

THAGE TO THE DEATH OF TRAJAN, WHEN THE
ROMAN EMPIRE HAD ATTAINED TO ITS UTMOST
EXTENT.

The empire of Syria at first comprehended all Asia to the river Indus, and beyond it; but in 312 B. C. most of the Indian provinces had been by Seleucus ceded to Sandrocottus, or Androcottus, a native, who in return gave him 500 elephants. Of the empire of Saudrocottus we know nothing farther than that he subdued all the countries between the Indus and the Ganges; so that from this time the greatest part of India became independent of the Syro-Macedonian princes. In 250 B. C., however, the empire sustained a much greater loss by the revolt of the Parthians and Bactrians from Antiochus Theos. The former could not be subdued; and, as they held in subjection to them the extensive country now called Persia, their defection was an irreparable loss. Whether any part of their country was afterwards recovered, by the kings of Egypt or Syria, is not certain. The general state of the world B. C. 146 was as follows::

In Asia were the empires of India, Parthia, and Syria, with the smaller states of Armenia, Pontus, &c., to which we must add that of Arabia, which during the sixth period had become of some consequence, and had maintained its independence from the days of Ishmael. I

Africa were the kingdoms of Egypt and Ethiopia; the Carthaginian territories, now subject to the Romans; and the kingdoms of Numidia, Mauritania, and Getulia, ready to be swallowed up by the same ambitious and insatiable power, now that Carthage was destroyed, which had served as a barrier against it. To the south lay unknown and barbarous nations, secure by their situation and insignificance, rather than their strength, or distance from Rome. In Europe we find none to oppose the progress of the Roman arms, except the Gauls, and some nations of Spain.

The Spaniards had indeed been subdued by Scipio Africanus during the second Punic war; but in 155 B. C. they revolted; and under the conduct of one Viriathus, formerly a robber, held out for a long time against all the armies the Romans could send into Spain. Him the consul Cæpio caused to be murdered about 138 B. C., because he found it impossible to reduce him by force. Numantia defied the whole Roman power for six years longer.

About this time Attalus king of Pergamus left by will the Roman people heirs to all his goods; upon which they immediately seized on his kingdom and reduced it to a Roman province, under the name of Asia Proper. In 122 B. C. the Balearic Islands, now called Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, were subdued. The event of it was the total reduction of Numidia, which took place about the year 105 B. C.; but Mauritania and Getulia preserved their liberty for some time longer.

In the east the einpire of Syria continued to decline; by which means the Jews not only had an opportunity of recovering their liberty, but even of becoming almost as powerful, or at least of extending their dominions as far, as in the days of David and Solomon. The Syrian empire was farther reduced by the civil dissensions beween the two brothers, Antiochus Gryphus and Antiochus Cyzicenus; during which the cities of Tyre, Sidon, Ptolemais, and Gaza, declared themselves independent. This happened about 100 B.C.; and, seventeen years after, the whole was reduced by Tigranes king of Armenia. On his defeat, by the Romans, the latter reduced Syria to a province of their empire. Pontus was subdued about 64 B. C. The kingdom of Judea also was reduced under the same power about this time. It owed the loss of its liberty to the same cause that had ruined various other states, namely, calling in the Romans to be arbitrators between contending parties. Hyrcanus and Aristobulus had contended for the kingdom, when the latter applied to the Romans, and Pompey the Great decided against him; but at the same time deprived Hyrcanus of all regal power, and did not allow him to extend his territory beyond the ancient borders of Judea.

In the west, however, the Gauls were still free, and the Spanish nations bore the Roman yoke with great impatience; while the kingdom of Egypt remained independent. The battle of Actium, however, determined the fate of Antony, Cleopatra, and Egypt itself; which was reduced to a Roman province, about the year 29 B. C.

This same event was the destruction of the

Roman republic; and it proved advantageous to the few nations of the world who still retained their liberty. That outrageous desire of conquest, which had so long marked the Roman character, now in a measure ceased; and after the final reduction of Spain, and the conquest of Masia and Pannonia, the empire enjoyed for some time a profound peace.

The only remarkable transactions which took place during the remainder of this period, were the conquest of Britain by Claudius and Agricola, and the destruction of Jerusalem by Vespasian and Titus. The war with the Jews began A.D. 67; and was occasioned by their obstinately claiming the city of Cæsarea, which the Romans had added to Syria. It ended in 73, with the most terrible destruction of their city and nation; since which time they have never been able to exercise sovereign authority. The southern parts of Britain were totally subdued by Agricola about ten years after.

In the year 98, of the Christian æra, Trajan was emperor of Rome; and the empire reached its utmost extent. Having conquered the Dacians, a German nation beyond the Danube, he turned his arms eastward; reduced all Mesopotamia, Chaldæa, and Assyria; and having taken Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian empire, appointed them a king. After this he proposed to return to Italy, but died by the way.

SECT. VIII. FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, TO ITS DIVISION UNDER CONSTANTINE.

No sooner, however, had the vast empire of the Romans attained its utmost degree of power, than, like its predecessors, it began to decline. The provinces of Babylonia, Mesopotamia, and Africa, almost instantly revolted, and were abandoned by Adrian, the successor of Trajan. The Parthians, having recovered their liberty, were very formidable enemies, and the barbarians of the northern parts of Europe continued to increase in strength. At different times, however, some warlike emperors arose, who put a stop to the incursions of these barbarians; and, about the year 225, the Parthian empire was totally overthrown by the Persians. But the latter became still more troublesome enemies to the empire than the Parthians; and, though often defeated, they long continued to infest it on the east. In 260 the defeat and captivity of Valerian, by the Persians, threatened the empire with utter destruction. Thirty tyrants now seized the government at once; and the barbarians, pouring in on all sides, ravaged almost all the provinces. By the vigorous conduct of Claudius II., Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, and Carus, the empire was in part, indeed, restored to its former lustre ; but the barbarians were never thoroughly subdued.

An end was put to these evils when the empire was united under Constantine the Great; but in 330 a mortal blow was given to it, by his removing the imperial seat to Constantinople. The establishment of Christianity, now corrupted with the grossest superstitions, proved also no small detriment to the empire.

SECT. IX. FROM THE DIVISION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE TO THE Destruction of THE WESTern Part of it, and the Rise oF MAHOMET AND OF THE EUROPEAN STATES.

We now see that mighty empire, which formerly occupied almost the whole world, weakened by division, and surrounded by enemies. On the east, the Persians; on the north, the Scythians, Sarmatians, Goths, and a multitude of other barbarous nations, watched all occasions to break into it; and miscarried in their attempts rather through their own barbarity than the strength of their enemies.

Some of the Roman emperors indeed withstood this inundation of savages; but as the latter grew daily more numerous, and the Romans continued their intestine wars, they were at last obliged to take large bodies of barbarians into their pay, and teach them their military discipline. This at last proved their total destruction; for, in 476, the barbarians who served in the Roman armies, and were dignified with the title of allies, demanded the third part of the lands of Italy as a reward for their services; and, meeting with a refusal, revolted, and made themselves masters of Rome itself.

Spain was at this time held by the Goths and Suevians; Africa (that is, Barbary and Biledulgerid), by the Vandals; the Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and Alans, had erected several small states in Gaul; Italy was subjected to the Heruli under Odoacer, who had assumed the title of King of Italy; and Britain was abandoned.

The empire, indeed, continued to maintain its sway at Constantinople, and comprehended all Asia Minor and Syria, as far as Persia; in Africa, the kingdom of Egypt; and Greece in Europe. It was engaged, however, in continual wars with the Persians, Bulgarians, and other barbarous nations; and superstition and a general relaxation of military discipline hastened its downfal.

Among the western nations, revolutions succeeded one another with rapidity. The Heruli under Odoacer were driven out by the Goths under Theodoric. The Goths were expelled by the Romans; and, while the two parties were contending, both were attacked by the Franks. The Romans were in their turn expelled by the Goths the Franks again invaded Italy, and made themselves masters of the province of Venetia; but at last the superior fortune of the emperor of Constantinople prevailed, and in 553 the Goths were finally subdued.

Narses, their conqueror, governed Italy as a province of the eastern empire till the year 568, when Longinus his successor made considerable alterations. Being invested with absolute power, by Justinian, he suppressed the consulares, correctores, and præsides; and placed in each city of note a governor, whom he distinguished with the title of duke. The city of Rome was not more honored than any other; for Longinus, having abolished the name of senate and consuls, appointed a duke of Rome as well as of other cities. To himself he assumed the title of exarch; and, residing at Ravenna, his government was styled the exarchate of Ravenna. While he was establishing this new empire, the greatest part of Italy was conquered by the Lombards.

In 487 Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, possessed himself of all the countries lying between the Rhine and the Loire. See FRANCE.

In Spain the Visigoths erected a kingdom ten years before the conquest of Rome by the He ruli. This they extended eastward, about the same time that Clovis was extending his conquests to the west; so that the two kingdoms united at the river Loire. The consequence of this was an immediate war, and Clovis proved victorious.

Another kingdom had in the mean time been founded in the western parts of Spain by the Suevi. In 409 this kingdom was entirely subverted by Theodoric king of the Goths, who in 584 became masters of almost all Spain.

Africa, properly so called, had changed its masters three times during this period. The Vandals had expelled the Romans, and erected an independent kingdom, which was at last overturned by the emperors of Constantinople; and from them the greatest part of it was taken by the Goths in 620.

SECT. X.-FROM THE RISE OF THE MAHOMMEDAN SUPERSTITION TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CRUSADES.

The tenth general period of history commences with the flight of Mahomet in the year 622 (whence his followers date their era called the Hegira). The Roman empire in the west was now annihilated; the Persian empire, and that of Constantinople, weakened by their mutual wars and intestine divisions; the Indians and other eastern nations unaccustomed to war, and ready to fall a prey to the first invader; the southern parts of Europe were also in a distracted and barbarous state; while the inhabitants of Arabia, from their earliest origin accustomed to war and plunder, were like a flood pent up, and ready to overwhelm the rest of the world.

With amazing celerity, therefore, they overran all Syria, Palestine, Persia, Bukharia, and India, extending their conquests farther to the eastward than ever Alexander had done. On the west their empire soon extended over Egypt, Barbary, Spain, Sicily, Sardinia, Majorca, Minorca, &c., and many of the isles in the Archipelago: nor were the coasts of Italy itself free from their incursions; they are even said to have reached the distant and barren country of Iceland. But at last this great empire began to decline, and its ruin was very sudden. Mahomet had not taken care to establish the apostleship in his family, or to give any particular directions about a successor. The consequence was, that the caliphat, or succession to the apostleship, was seized by many usurpers; and those who resided at Bagdad were regarded only as a kind of high priests. Of these divisions the Turks took advantage, to establish their authority in many provinces.

While the barbarians of the east were thus conquering, for the glory of God and his apostle Mahomet, the western nations professed an equal regard for the divine glory, and exemplified it in the respect they paid to the pope and the clergy

Ever since the establishment of Christianity, by Constantine, the bishops of Rome had been gradually extending their power; and when in 726 Luitprand, king of the Lombards, had taken Ravenna, and expelled the exarch, the pope undertook to restore him. He applied, for this purpose, to the Venetians, who are now first mentioned in history, and by their means the exarch was restored. Some time before a quarrel had happened between pope Gregory II., and Leo III., emperor of the east, about the worship of images. Leo, who, in the midst of so much barbarism, had still preserved some share of common sense, reprobated this in the strongest terms, and commanded the objects of it to be destroyed throughout his dominions. At the instigation of the pope a revolt ensued; the exarch, who attempted to fulfil the emperor's commands, was excommunicated; and then torn in pieces by the multitude: the duke of Naples shared the same fate: and a vast number of the iconoclasts, or image-breakers, as they were called, were slaughtered without mercy.

Charles Martel, who then governed France as mayor of the palace, was in the end applied to; but, before a treaty could be concluded, all the parties concerned were cut off. Constantine Copronymus, who succeeded Leo at Constantinople, not only persisted in the opposition to image worship, begun by his predecessor, but prohibited also the invocation of saints.

Zachary, who succeeded Gregory III. in the pontificate, proved as zealous an adversary as his predecessor; and Pepin, who succeeded Charles Martel in the sovereignty of France, proved as powerful a friend to the pope as his father had been. The people of Rome had nothing to fear from Constantinople; and therefore drove out all the emperor's officers. Awed by the power of France, the Lombards for some time allowed the pope to govern the dominions of the exarchate in peace; but in 752 Astolphus, king of Lombardy, again threatened Rome itself. Upon this an application was made to Pepin, who obliged Astolphus to restore the places he had taken, and gave them to the pope, or, as he said, to St. Peter. The Greek emperor, to whom they of right belonged, remonstrated to no purpose. The pope from that time became possessed of considerable territories in Italy. It was not, however, before the year 774 that he was fully settled in this new dominion.

The world was now once more shared among three great powers. The empire of the Arabs or Saracens extended from the Ganges to Spain; comprehending almost all of Asia and Africa which has ever been known to Europeans, China and Japan excepted. The eastern Roman empire was reduced to Greece, Asia Minor, and the provinces adjoining to Italy. The empire of the west, under Charlemagne, comprehended France, Germany, and the greatest part of Italy. Of all nations on the earth, the Scots and Picts, and the remote ones of China and Japan, seem to have enjoyed, from their situation, the greatest share of liberty; unless perhaps we except the Scandinavians, who, under the names of Danes and Normans, were soon to infest their southern neighbours.

The Saxon heptarchy was dissolved in 827, and the whole kingdom of England reduced under one head. The Danes and Normans began to make depredations, and infest the neighbouring states. The former conquered the Anglo-Saxons, and seized the government, but were in their turn expelled by the Normans in 1066. In Germany and Italy the greatest disturbances arose from the contests between the popes and emperors. To all this, if we add the internal contests which happened through the ambition of the powerful barons of every kingdoin, we can scarcely form an idea of times more calamitous than those at which we now arrive. All Europe, nay, all the world, was one great field of battle, for the empire of the Turks was not in a more settled state than that of the Europeans. Caliphs, sultans, emirs, &c., waged continual war with each other in every quarter; new sovereignties every day sprung up, and were as quickly destroyed. At last the crusades, by directing the attention of Europeans to one particular object, made them in some measure suspend the slaughter of one another. SECT. XI.—FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE

CRUSADES TO THAT OF THE AMERICAN RE

VOLUTION.

The crusades originated in the superstition of the two grand religious parties into which the world was at that time divided, namely, the Christians and Mahommedans. See CRUSADES. Both looked upon the small territory of Palestine, which they called the Holy Land, to be an invaluable acquisition. The first crusades accordingly poured forth in multitudes, like those with which the kings of Persia formerly invaded Greece; and their fate was nearly similar. They at first, indeed, carried every thing before them; but their want of conduct soon lost what their valor had obtained, and very few of that vast multitude which had left Europe ever returned. A second, a third, and several other crusades, were preached, and were attended with like success and like reverses. Vast numbers took the cross, and repaired to the Holy Land; which they polluted by the most abominable massacres and treache ries, and from which very few of them returned.

Jenghiz Khan, the greatest as well as the most bloody conqueror that ever existed, now made his appearance in the east. The rapidity of his conquests seemed to emulate those of Alexander; but the cruelties he committed were altogether unparalleled.

The Moguls, over whom he assumed the sovereignty, were a people of Tartary, divided into a number of petty governments, who owned subjection to one sovereign, whom they called Vang-Khan, or the great khan, Temujin, afterwards Jenghiz Khan, was one of these petty princes, unjustly deprived of the greatest part of his inheritance at the age of thirteen. Twentyseven years after, which corresponds with the year 1201, he totally reduced the rebels; and, as a specimen of his lenity, caused seventy of their chiefs to be thrown into as many caldrons of boiling water. In 1202 he defeated and killed Vang-khan himself, known to Europeans by the name of Prester John of Asia; ind, pos

sessing himself of his vast dominions, became thenceforward irresistible. In 1206 he was declared khan of the Moguls and Tartars; and took upon him the title of Jenghiz Khan, or the great khan of khans. This was followed by the reduction of the kingdoms of Hya in China, Tangut, Kitay, Turkestan, Karazim, or the kingdom of Gazna, Great Bukharia, Persia, and part of India; all which vast regions were reduced in twenty-six years, no fewer than 14,470,000 persons being computed to have been massacred by him. He died in the beginning of 1227. His successors completed the conquest of China and Korea; but were foiled in their attempts on Cochin China, Tong-King, and Japan. His empire, however, was soon divided and weakened until we arrive at the times of Timur Bek, or Tamerlane. The Turks at this time, urged forward by the inundation of Tartars who poured in from the east, were forced upon the remains of the Greek empire; and at the time of Tamerlane they had almost confined this once mighty empire within the walls of Constantinople. In 1335 the family of Jenghız Khan became extinct in Persia.

In 1362 Tamerlane invaded Bukharia, which he reduced in five years. He proceeded in his conquests, though not with the same celerity as Jenghiz Khan, till 1387, when he had subdued all Persia, Armenia, Georgia, Karazim, and great part of Tartary. After this he proceeded westward, subduing all the countries to the Euphrates, made himself master of Bagdad, and even pillaged Moscow. Thence he turned his arms to the east, and totally subdued India. In 1393 he invaded and reduced Syria; and, having turned his arms against the Turks, forced their sultan, Bajazet I., to raise the siege of Constantinople. At last this great conqueror died in 1405, while on his way to conquer China, and most of the nations he had conquered recovered their liberty. In 1453 the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks fixed that wandering people to one place; and though they now possess very large regions in Europe, Asia, and Africa, an effectual stop has long been put to their further progress.

About this time learning began to revive in Europe, where it had long been lost; and the invention of printing rendered it impossible for the ancient barbarism ever to return. This soon produced improvements in navigation; and the discovery of many unknown regions.

In the end of the fifteenth century the vast continent of America became known to Europe; and, about the same time, the passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope was accomplished. The Portuguese had the advantage of being the first modern discoverers of the eastern, and the Spaniards of the western world. Neither neglected so favorable an opportunity of enriching themselves by commerce; but their avarice, and perfidious behaviour towards the natives, proved at last its own punishment, and, in many cases, soon ended in their expulsion. See MEXICO, PERU, &c. These possessions of the Spaniards and Portuguese excited other European nations to make attempts to share with them in their treasures, by planting colonies and

making settlements in the East and West Indies, and thus the rage of war was in some measure transferred from Europe to these distant regions; where, after various contests, the British at last obtained a great superiority.

In Europe the only considerable revolutions, of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, were the expulsion of the Moors and Saracens from Spain, by the taking of Grenada in 1491; the union of the kingdoms of Arragon and Castile, by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella; and the revolt of the states of Holland from the Spaniards. After much contention and blood shed, these last obtained their liberty, and were declared a free people in 1609.

During the seventeenth century two very important revolutions took place in Great Britain, which, though they may seem to be of a local nature, merit particular notice in a general history of the world, on account of their important consequences to other nations. The bloody persecutions which had been carried on both in Scotland and England, on account of religion, about the commencement of the reformation, had awakened among mankind an attention to their civil as well as religious rights. The reformation was established in England: and the obstinate adherence to prérogative, on the part of the crown, produced so violent an opposition on that of the people, that the king was at last brought to the scaffold, and England for a short time became a commonwealth.

See

GREAT BRITAIN. When again the arbitrary measures of James II. would have restored both popery and a despotic monarchy, the glorious Revolution of 1688 was effected, by which those rights and privileges were established, which have ever been since the boast of Britons.

In the mean time most of those persons who had emigrated from Great Britain to America, on account of civil or religious persecution, being of republican principles, and jealous of the smallest encroachments upon their rights, naturally instilled those principles into the minds of their children; and thus laid the foundation for that jealousy of power, and spirit of resistance to oppression, which afterwards excited the American war, and resulted in the independence of the UNITED STATES, which see.

SECT. XII.-FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE AMERICAN WAR, TO THE CONCLUSION OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR, BY THE PEACE IN 1801.

The consequences of this contest were the general diffusion of those principles, upon which the resistance of the Americans to the mother country was founded, throughout the different states of Europe, particularly in France, Germany, Holland, and Italy. Out of it arose the French Revolution.

In Asia, the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, and the rise of the British empire in Hindostan, are the only modern events of great importance. The Turks possess the western part of the continent called Asia Minor, to the Euphrates. The Arabs are again confined within their own peninsula; which they possess, as they