study history, therefore, ought first to make himself acquainted with the state of the world in general in different ages; the nations who inhabited the different parts of it; what their extent of territory was; at what particular time they arose, and when they declined. He should next inform himself of the various events which have happened to each particular nation; and thus he will discover many of the causes of those revolutions, which before he only knew as facts. For, a person may be familiar with the Roman history from the time of Romulus, without knowing why the city of Rome happened to be built at that time. This cannot be understood without a particular knowledge of the former state of Italy, and even of Greece and Asia; the origin of the Romans being commonly traced as high as Eneas, one of the heroes of Troy. The outline of history may be easily obtained by the inspection of an historical chart, such as that subjoined to the present treatise. See plate HISTORY. The following short abridgment of general history may also serve to assist the student. The plan extends back only to the Flood; the preceding period of 1656 years is therefore left blank in the chart. There being 2348 years from the Flood to the birth of Christ, the space between them is divided into twenty-three parts, each representing 100 years or a century, and a fraction representing the remaining forty-eight years. The space from the birth of Christ downwards is divided into eighteen parts or centuries: and all these parts, together with some centuries preceding the birth of Christ, are subdived into tens. The vertical columns are geographical divisions; and events are marked in their proper centuries and proper columns. Thus the rise of any state, as that of Assyria, is marked in its proper geographical column, and in that place of the twenty-first century before Christ at which the beginning of its history is dated; thence we trace its continuance to the end of the seventh century before Christ, when it became extinct. The building of Rome is marked about the middle of the eighth century before Christ. Its territory extends by degrees to the conquest of all Italy; next to Spain, Macedonia, &c., until it comes to extend from Britain to Egypt. It continues of this magnitude until about the middle of the fifth century after Christ, when it begins to lose those provinces out of which the modern kingdoms of Europe have been formed in the order set down. As this appears on mere inspection, it will be more easily remembered than when it is conveyed in numbers only. The dates are taken chiefly from Blair's Chronological Tables. It would have been easy to have extended this chart by inserting remarkable events, the successions of kings and great men, &c., but clearness and simplicity appeared a preferable object. It was therefore thought proper to leave to every person the filling up of his own plan with such articles as are most in the line of his study. We have given a few specimens of the succession of the Roman emperors, and of the kings of England and France; and of the eras of one or two remarkable men, as those of Tacitus the historian, and Attila. One person may fill this plan with the names of statesmen and warriors, another with scholars and philosophers, &c. As space is here employed to represent time, it is material that equal periods should be represented by equal spaces; and, if possible, that the parts of the same empire should be placed together. We have seen both these circumstances neglected in charts of universal history. PART I. OF CIVIL HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. Civil History, though it might seem incapable of any natural division, except that of arranging it according to the different states whose transactions it describes, may yet be very properly divided into the following periods, at each of which a great revolution took place, either with regard to the whole world, or a very considerable part of it: viz. 1. The creation of man; 2. The flood; 3. The commencement of profane history, i. e. when leaving the fabulous relations of heroes, demigods, &c., to the poets, we arrive at some facts which demand our belief. 4. The conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, and the destruction of the Babylonian empire. 5. The reign of Alexander the Great, and the overthrow of the Persian empire. 6. The destruction of Carthage by the Romans, when the latter had no longer any rival capable of opposing their aim at universal empire. 7. The reign of Trajan, when the Roman empire was at its greatest extent. 8. The division of the empire under Constantine. 9. The destruction of the western empire by Odoacer, and the settlement of the different nations of Europe. 10. The rise of Mahomet and the conquests of the Saracens and Turks. 11. The Crusades, and the space intervening between that time and the American war. 12. The last but not the least important era, from the commencement of the American war to the period of the French revolution. With regard to the number of years which have elapsed since the creation of the world, there have been many disputes. The compilers of the Universal History determine it to have taken place in the year 4305 B. C., so that, according to them, the world is now in the 6106th year of its age. Others think it was created only 4000 years B. C., so that it is not yet 5831 years old. But see our article CHRONOLOGY. Be this as it will, however, the whole account of the creation rests on the truth of the Mosaic history; which we must of necessity accept, because we can find no other, which does not either abound with the grossest absurdities, or lead us into absolute darkness. The Chinese and Egyptian pretensions to antiquity are so absurd and ridiculous, that the bare reading of them must be a sufficient confutation of those pretensions to every reasonable person. SECT. I.-FROM THE CREATION TO THE DE LUGE. The transactions during this period are little known, nothing indeed being recorded of them but what is to be found in the first six chapters of Genesis. In general, we know, that men were not at that time in a savage state, as poets and even historians have supposed; but that they had made some progress in the arts, had invented music, and found out the method of working metals. They seem also to have lived in one vast community, without any of those divisions into different nations which have since taken place, and which evidently proceeded from the confusion of languages. The most material part of their history, however, is, that having once begun to trangress the divine commands, they proceeded to greater and greater lengths of wickedness, till at last the Deity thought proper to send a flood on the earth, which destroyed the whole human race, except eight persons, viz. Noah and his family. This terrible catastrophe happened, according to the Hebrew copy of the Bible, 1656 years after the creation; according to the Samaritan copy, 1307. For the different conjectures concerning the natural causes of the flood, see the article DELUge. SECT. II.--FROM THE DELUGE TO THE COM MENCEMENT OF PROFANE HISTORY. For the history of this period we must again have recourse to the Scriptures, almost as much as for that of the first. We now find the human race reduced to eight persons, possessed of nothing but what they had saved in the ark, and the whole world to be stored with animals from those which had been preserved along with them. In what country their original settlement was made, is uncertain. The ark rested on Mount Ararat in Armenia, but it is impossible to know whether Noah and his sons made any stay in the neighbourhood of this mountain or not. Certain it is, that some time after the whole or the greatest part of the human race were assembled in Babylonia, where they engaged in building a tower, with the foolish and impious intention, as it would seem, of ascending to heaven. The Deity punished them by confounding their language; whence the division of mankind into different nations. By the most probable accounts Gomer, the son of Japheth the son of Noah, was the father of the Gomerians or Celtes, i. e. of all the barbarous nations who inhabited the northern parts of Europe, under the names of Gauls, Cimbrians, Goths, &c., and who also migrated into Spain, where they were called Celtiberians. From Magog, Meshech, and Tubal, three of Gomer's brethren, proceeded the Scythians, Sarmatians, Tartars, and Moguls. The other three sons of Japheth, Madai, Javan, and Tiras, are said to have been the fathers of the Medes, the Ionians, Greeks, and Thracians. The children of Shem were Elam, Asshur, Arphaxad, Lud, and Aram. The first settled in Persia, where he became the father of that mighty nation: the descendants of Asshur peopled Assyria: Arphaxad settled in Chaldea. Lud is supposed by Josephus to have taken up his residence in Lydia; though this is controverted. Aram, with more certainty, is believed to have settled in Mesopotamia and Syria. The children of Ham were Cush, Mizraim Phut, and Canaan. Cush is thought to have remained in Babylonia, and to have been king of the south-east parts of it, afterwards called Khuzestan. His descendants are supposed to have removed into the eastern parts of Arabia; from whence they by degrees migrated into the corresponding part of Africa. Mizraim peopled Egypt, Ethiopia, Cyrenaica, Libya, and the rest of the northern parts of the same continent. The place where Phut settled is not known; but Canaan is universally allowed to have settled in Phoenicia; and to have founded those nations who inhabited Judea, and were afterwards mostly exterminated by the Jews. Monarchical government began early, Nimrod the son of Cush having procured himself to be made king of Babylon. Asshur soon after emigrated from the new kingdom; built Nineveh, afterwards capital of the Assyrian empire; and two other cities, called Resen and Rehoboth, of the situation of which we are now ignorant. Whether Asshur at this time set up as king for himself, or whether he held those cities as vassal to Nimrod, is uncertain. About the same time various other kingdoms sprang up in different parts of the world. Thus the Scripture mentions the kings of Egypt, Gerar, Sodom, Gomorrah, &c., in the time of Abraham; and we may reasonably suppose, that these kings reigned over nations which had existed for some time. The first considerable national revolution on record is the migration of the Israelites out of Egypt, and their establishment in the land of Canaan. For the history of these transactions we must refer to the Old Testament, where the reader will see that it was attended with a terrible catastrophe to the Egyptians, and with the utter extermination of some of the descendants of Ham, who inhabited Judea. The settlement of the Jews in the land of Canaan is supposed to have happened about 1491 B. C. For nearly 200 years after this period we find no authentic account of any other nations than those mentioned in Scripture. About 1260 B.C. the Greeks began to make other communities feel the effects of that enterprising and martial spirit for which they were so remarkable, and which they had undoubtedly exercised upon one another long before. Their first enterprise was an invasion of Colchis, for the sake of the golden fleece. Whatever was the nature of this expedition, it is probable they succeeded in it; and that this specimen of the produce and riches of Asia inclined them to Asiatic expeditions afterwards. All this time we are totally in the dark about the state of Asia and Africa, except in so far as can be conjectured from Scripture. The ancient empires of Babylon, Assyria, and Persia, probably still continued in the former continent, and Egypt and Ethiopia seem to have been considerable kingdoms in the latter. About 1184 years B. C. the Greeks again distinguished themselves by their expedition against Troy, a city of Phrygia Minor; which they plundered and burnt, massacreing the inhabitants with the most unrelenting cruelty. Æneas, a Trojan prince, escaped with some followers into Italy, where he became the remote founder of the Roman empire. At this time Greece was divided into a number of small príncipalities, several of which seem to have been in subjection to Agamemnon, king of Mycena. In the reign of Atreus, the father of Agamemnon, the Heraclidæ, who had been banished by Eurystheus, were again obliged to leave this country. Under their champion Hyllus they claimed the kingdom of Mycenae as their right, pretending that it belonged to their ancestor Hercules, who was unjustly deprived of it by Eurystheus. See HERACLIDE and HERCULES. The controversy was decided by single combat; but, Hyllus being killed, they departed, under a promise of not returning for fifty years. About the time of the Trojan war, also, we find the Lydians, Mysians, and some other nations of Asia Minor, first mentioned in history. The names of the Greek states mentioned during this uncertain period are: 1. Sicyon. 2. The Leleges. 3. Messenia. 4. Attica. 5. Crete. 6. Argos. 7. Sparta. 8. Pelasgia. 9. Thessaly. 10. Attica. 11. Phocis. 12. Locris. 13. Ozolea. 14. Corinth. 15. Eleusis. 16. Elis. 17. Pilus. 18. Arcadia. 19. Ægina. 20. Ithaca. 21. Cephalenia. 22. Phthia. 23. Phocidia. 24. Ephyra. 25. Eolia. 26. Thebes. 27. Callista. 28. Ætolia. 29. The Dolopes. 30. Oechalia. 31. Mycenæ. 32. Eubœa. 33. The Minya. 34. Doris. 35. Pheræ. 36. Ionia. 37. Trachin. 38. Thesprotia. 39. Myrmidonia. 40. Salamis. 41. Scyros. 42. Hyperia or Melite. 43. The Vulcanian Isles. 44. Megara. 45. Epirus. 46. Achaia. 47. The isles of the Ægean Sea. Concerning many of these we know little or nothing; the most remarkable particulars respecting the rest may be found under their names. About 1048 B. C. the kingdom of Judea under king David approached its utmost extent of power. Leaving the reader to acquaint himself, from Scripture, with the details of its condition Inder Solomon, we may bserve that the first shock given to the Jewish grandeur in the division of the kingdom into two, through the imprudence of Rehoboam, rendered it the more easily a prey to Shishak king of Egypt; who five years after came and pillaged Jerusalem, and all the fortified cities of Judah. The commerce to the East Indies, begun by Solomon, seems now to have been discontinued. Whether this Shishak was the Sesostris of profane writers or not, seems questionable; his expedition against Jerusalem, as recorded in Scripture, was very similar to the desultory conquests ascribed to Sesostris, and it seems impossible to fix on any other king of Egypt who can be supposed to have undertaken this expedition in the days of Rehoboam. In 941 B. C. Zera, an Ethiopian, invaded Judea with an army of 1,000,000 infantry and 300 chariots; but was defeated with great slaughter by Asa, who engaged him with an army of 580,000 men. About this time also the Syrians had become a considerable people, and bitter enemies both to the kings of Israel and Judah; aiming in fact at the conquest of both nations, by pretending to assist the one against the other. In 740 B. C., however, the Syrian empire was totally destroved by Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria; as was also the kingdom of Samaria by Shalmaneser his successor in 721. The people were either massacred, or carried captives into Media, Persia, and the countries about the Caspian Sea. While the eastern nations were thus destroying each other, the foundations of very formidable empires were laid in the west, which, in process of time, were to swallow up almost all the eastern ones. In Africa, Carthage was founded by a Tyrian colony, about 869 B. C., according to those who ascribe the highest antiquity to that city; but, according to others, it was founded only in 769, or 770 B. C. In Europe a very considerable revolution took place about 900 B. C. The Heraclidæ, after several unsuccessful attempts, at last conquered the whole Peloponnesus. From this time the Grecian states became more civilised, and their history less obscure. The institution, or rather the revival and continuance, of the Olympic games, in 776 B. C., also greatly facilitated not only the writing of their history, but that of other nations; for, as each Olympiad consisted of four years, the chronology of every important event became indubitably fixed by referring it to such and such an Olympiad. In 748 B. C., or the last year of the seventh Olympiad, the foundation of Rome was laid by Romulus; and, forty-three years after, the Spartan state was new modelled, and received from Lycurgus those laws, by observing of which it afterwards arrived at such a pitch of prosperity. SECT. III. FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF PROFANE HISTORY TO THE ERECTION OF THE BABYLONIAN EMPIRE BY NEBUCHADNEZZAR. With the beginning of the twenty-eighth Olympiad, or 568 B. C., commences the third general period above mentioned, when profane history becomes somewhat clear, and the relations concerning the different nations may be depended upon with some degree of certainty. The general state of the world at this period was as follows: The northern parts of Europe were thinly inhabited, or filled with unknown and barbarous nations. France and Spain were inhabited by the Gomerians or Celtes. Italy was divided into a number of petty states, arising partly from Gaulish, and partly from Grecian colonies. among which the Romans had already become formidable. They were governed by their sixth king, Servius Tullius; had increased their city by the demolition of Alba Longa, and the removal of its inhabitants to Rome; and had enlarged their dominions by several cities taken from their neighbours. Greece was divided into a number of small states, among which the Athenians and Spartans, being the most remarkable, were rivals to each other. The former had, about 599 B. C., received the excellent laws of Solon, and were enriching themselves by navigation and commerce; the latter were become formidable by the martial institutions of Lycurgus. The other states of most consideration were Corinth, Thebes, Argos, and Arcadia. In Asia Nebuchadnezzar now sat on the thron? of Babylon. By him the kingdom of Judea was totally overthrown in 587 B. C. Three years before this he had taken and razed the city of Tyre, and over-run all Egypt. He is even said by Josephus to have conquered Spain, and reigned there nine years; but this seems improbable. His empire comprehended Phoenicia, Palestine, Syria, Babylonia, Media and Persia, and part of India. When we consider that the whole strength of this mighty empire was employed in beautifying the metropolis, we cannot regard the wonders of that city, as reiated by Herodotus, as at all incredible. SECT. IV. FROM THE ERECTION OF THE BABYLONIAN EMPIRE TO ITS OVERTHROW BY CYRUS. This fourth general period is very short, embracing only the revolution occasioned by the misconduct of Evil-merodach, Nebuchadnezzar's son, in his father's life time. Having, in a hunting match, entered the country of the Medes, and some of his troops coming up to relieve the garrisons in those places, he joined them to those already with him, and without the least provocation began to plunder and lay waste the country. This produced an immediate revolt, which quickly extended over all Media and Persia. The Medes, headed by Astyages, and his son Cyaxares, drove back Evil-merodach and his party with great slaughter; nor does it appear that they were afterwards reduced by Nebuchadnezzar. The new empire continued daily to gather strength; and at last Cyrus, Astyages's grandson, a prince of great prudence and valor, being made generalissimo of the Median and Persian forces, took Babylon itself, in the year 538, B. C. See BABYLONIA. The Romans, during this period, increased in power under the wise government of Servius Tullius, a pacific prince, who rendered this people more formidable by a peace of twenty years, than his predecessors had done by all their victories. The Greeks now began to interfere with the Persians, on account of the Ionians, or Grecian colonies in Asia Minor. Whether the Lydians had been subdued by the Babylonish monarch or not, is not ascertained; though it is probable that they were either in subjection to him, or greatly awed by his power, as before his death nothing considerable was undertaken by them. It is also very probable that during the insanity of Nebuchadnezzar, spoken of by Daniel, the affairs of his kingdom would fall into confusion. Certain it is, that, if the Babylonians did not regard Croesus as their subject, they considered him as a very faithful ally. When Cyrus, therefore, was proceeding in his conquest of the Babylonish empire, before he proceeded to attack the capital, he offered advantageous terms to the Ionians, but they refused to submit to him. Soon after, however, Crœsus himself being defeated and taken prisoner, the Ionians sent ambassadors to Cyrus, offering to embrace his terms. These were now refused; and the Ionians applied to the Spartans for aid. Thus commenced the hatred between the Greeks and Persians. The transactions of Africa during this period are almost entirely unknown; though the Carthaginians were doubtless enriching themselves by means of their commerce. SECT. V.-FROM THE ERECTION OF THE PER SIAN EMPIRE TO ITS OVERTHROW BY ALEX- Cyrus having now become master of all the east, the Asiatic affairs continued for some time in a state of tranquillity. The Jews obtained leave to return to their own country, and rebuild their temple. The successor of Cyrus, Camalso to have subdued the Carthaginians; but byses, added Egypt to his empire. He intended the Phoenicians refused to supply him with ships. In 517, B. C., the Babylonians, finding themselves grievously oppressed by their Persian masters, resolved to shake off the yoke, and for this purpose stored their city with provisions. When Darius Hystaspis advanced against them, they collected all the women, old men, and children, into one place, and strangled them without distinction, whether wives, fathers, mothers, brothers, or sisters; every one being allowed to select only one wife and a maid-servant. This cruel policy did not avail them: their city was taken, and the king caused the walls to be beat down from 200 to fifty cubits height. Darius then turned his arms against the Scythians; after which he directed his course eastward, and reduced the country as far as the Indus. In the mean time, the Ionians revolted; and the conquest of Greece was projected: but the expeditions for that purpose ended most unfortunately for the Persians. See ATTICA, Persia, and SPARTA. In 459, B. C., the Egyptians attempted to recover their liberty, but were reduced after a war of six years. In 413, B. C., they revolted a second time; and, being assisted by the Sidonians, drew upon the latter that terrible destruction foretold by the prophets; while they them selves were so thoroughly humbled, that they never after made any attempt to recover their liberty. The revolt of Cyrus the younger against his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, in which, through his own rashness, he miscarried, and lost his life at the battle of Cunaxa, in the province of Babylon, happened in the year B. C. 401 or 403. 10,000 Greek mercenaries, who served in his army, made their way back into their country, though surrounded on all sides by the enemy. In this retreat they were commanded by Xenophon, who has received the highest praise on account of his conduct and military skill. Two years after, the invasion of Agesilaus, king of Sparta, threatened the Persian empire with total destruction. The various transactions between the Grecian states, though they make a considerable figure in their respective histories, make but a small one in a general sketch. We shall, therefore, only observe, that in 404, B.C., the Athenian power was totally broken by the taking of their city by the Spartans. See ATTICA. In 370 that of the Spartans received a severe check from the Thebans at the battle of Leuctra; and eight years after was still further reduced by the battle of Mantinea. The Macedonians, a barbarous nation lying to the north of the states of Greece, now rose into power under Philip, who being no stranger to the weakened situation of Greece, began to meditate the conquest of it. The particulars of this enterprise will be found under the article MACEDON. Here it is sufficient mention, that by first attacking those he was sure he could overcome, and corrupting those whom he thought it dangerous to attack; by sometimes pretending to assist one state and sometimes another, and by imposing upon all as best suited his affairs, he finally gained his end. In 338 B. C. he procured himself to be elected general of the Amphictyons, and, having once obtained liberty to enter that country with an army, he quickly convinced the states that they must all submit to him. Philip when master of all Greece, projected the conquest of Asia, when he was suddenly assassinated. Alexander his son was possessed of every quality necessary for the execution of so great a plan; and his impetuosity of temper made him execute it with an unheard of rapidity. He met with only two checks in his Persian expedition. The one was from the city of Tyre, which for seven months resisted his utmost efforts; the other was from Memnon the Rhodian, who had undertaken to invade Macedonia. The first of these obstacles Alexander at last overcame, and treated the governor and inhabitants with the utmost cruelty. The other was scarcely felt; for Memnon died after reducing some of the Grecian islands, and Darius had no other general capable of conducting the undertaking. The power of the Persian empire was totally broken by the victory gained over Darius at Arbela, in the year 331 B. C., and next year a total end was put to it by the murder of the king by Bessus. Alexander now invaded and reduced Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana, and all the vast tract of country now called Bukharia. Having entered India, he reduced all the nations to the river Hyphasis, one of the branches of the Indus. But when he would have proceeded farther, and extended his conquests quite to the eastern extremities of Asia, his troops positively refused to follow him. Rome and Carthage were now making considerable advances in the west. During the time of their kings, the Romans had made a very considerable figure among the Italian nations; but after their expulsion, and the commencement of the republic, their conquests became much more rapid and extensive. In 501 B. C. they subdued the Sabines; eight years after, the Latins; and in 399 the city of Veii, the strongest in Italy, excepting Rome itself, was taken after a siege of ten years. But in the midst of their successes a sudden irruption of the Gauls had almost put an end to their power. The city was burnt to the ground in 383 B. C., and the capitol on the point of being surprised, when the Gauls, who were climbing up the walls in the night, were accidently discovered and repulsed. Rome was soon rebuilt; but at the celebrated Camillus's death, which happened about 352 B. C., its territory scarcely extended six or seven leagues from the capital. The people had been divided by Romulus into two classes, namely patricians and plebeians, answering to our nobility and commonalty. Between these two bodies were perpetual jealousies and contentions; which retarded the progress of the Roman conquests, and revived the hopes of the nations they conquered. The tribunes of the people were perpetually opposing the consuls and military tribunes, and the senate had often recourse to a dictator endowed with absolute power. Thus had the Romans continued for nearly 400 years, running the same round of wars with the same enemies, and reaping little advantage from their conquests, till at last matters were compounded, by choosing one of the consuls from among the plebeians; and from this time chiefly we may date the prosperity of Rome. The Carthaginians in the mean time continued to enrich themselves by commerce; but were by no means equal to the Romans in power. A new state, however, made its appearance during this period, which may be said to have taught the Carthaginians the art of war. This was Sicily. At what time it was first peopled cannot be ascertained. In the second year of the seventeenth Olympiad, or 710 B. C., some Greeà 20lonies are said to have arrived on the island, and in a short time founded several cities, of which Syracuse was the chief. The first considerable monarch of Syracuse was Gelon, who obtained the sovereignty about the year 483 B. C. The Carthaginians possessed some part of the island as early as 505 B. C.; but, in twenty-eight years after, they had been totally driven out by Gelon. The island also proved the scene of much slaughter and bloodshed in the wars of the Grecian states. Before the year 323 B. C., however, the Carthaginians had made themselves masters of a very considerable part of Sicily; whence all the power of the Greeks could not dislodge them. After the destruction of Tyre almost all the commerce in the western part of the world fell to the share of the Carthaginians; but whether they had at this time made many settlements in Spain, is not known. It is certain, that they traded to that country for the sake of the silver, as they probably also did to Britain for tin. In the year 323 B. C. Alexander the Great died at Babylon, without settling the affairs of his vast empire, or even naming a successor; and four new empires immediately rose out of it. SECT. VI.-FROM THE DIVISION OF THE GRECIAN EMPIRE, TO THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CARTHAGINIAN REPUBLIC BY THE ROMANS. Alexander had left behind him a victorious, and, we may say, invincible army, commanded by most expert officers, all equally ambitious of authority. Cassander, the son of Antipater, had seized Macedonia and Greece; Antigonus, Asia Minor; Seleucus had Babylon and the eastern provinces; and Ptolemy, Egypt and the western ones. One of these empires, however, soon fell; Antigonus being defeated and killed by Seleucus and Lysimachus at the Battle of Ipsus, in 301 B. C. The greatest part of his |