a decree from Cæsar Augustus that all the world should be taxed;' meaning all the provinces of the Roman Empire. When it is said therefore that the Dragon which was cast out of heaven was the Old Serpent, called the Devil and Satan, which deceiveth the whole world, we are led at once to conceive of the 'whole world' as synonymous with the territorial platform of the Roman Empire, which especially constituted the theatre of the Devil's or the Dragon's jurisdiction, and of which he was as it were the actuating and presiding genius. Accordingly it was the Roman Empire, as a grand governmental dominion, which the Dragon afterward transferred to the Beast, as it is said Rev. 13: 2, that 'The dragon gave him his power, and his seat, and great authority.' When we read, therefore, in the history of the Saviour's temptation, that the Devil showed him all the kingdoms of the earth and the glory of them, the explanation doubtless is, that he showed him the splendor and magnificence of the Roman power, of which he claimed the lordship, and by his promising to bestow all this upon Christ provided he would fall down and worship him, it was but promising in other words that he would make him Cæsar, which he imagined he could safely do, inasmuch as he was enabled to say, 'For that is mine, and to whomsoever I will, I give it;' a claim which would seem to be countenanced by his having afterward made it over to the Beast. It was his however merely by divine permission or providential economy, and not by original right. It was for wise reasons, afterward to be developed, that he was permitted to become the ruling spirit of that huge despotism.

And here we cannot but remark, that our interpretation of the symbol of the Dragon receives à strong collateral confirmation from the manner in which the Serpent has ever been regarded by heathen nations. Throughout the mythology of the ancients the Serpent, under some form

or other, occupies a very conspicuous place; and how far this feature of their system is to be traced, through broken and distorted traditions, to the scriptural history of the Fall and the symbolical imagery founded upon it, would constitute one of the most interesting subjects of antiquarian research. Bryant, than whom few men have ever lived better qualified to prosecute the inquiry, had he seen fit to embark in it, remarks, that 'it would be a noble undertaking, and very edifying in its consequences, if some person of true learning and deep insight into antiquity would go through with the history of the Serpent."* Scarcely a Pagan nation has existed among whom ophiolatry, or serpentworship, has not been established, as will appear from the slightest inspection of their religious hieroglyphics. The fabulous legends of the poets intertwine with the dogmas of the priest and the speculations of the philosopher in forming the thread which conducts us to the inspired origin of the heathen notions on this subject. The idea so prevalent in the early ages of the world of the existence of two great opposing Principles, the Spirit of Good and the Spirit of Evil, the last of which was ordinarily symbolized by a serpent, unquestionably refers itself directly to this source. The following passage, from the treatise of Plutarch on the Isis and Osiris of the Egyptians, is among the most important relics of antiquity. After speaking of Typhon, the Egyptian symbol of the Principle of Evil, he observes: 'This very ancient opinion is derived from the divines and lawgivers to the poets and philosophers, having an unknown beginning, that the universe is not a principle without mind and reason, and ungoverned as if left to itself, but is governed by two contrary and jarring powers, the one leading directly forward to the right, and the other retrograde and wayward. So that this life is mixed, and the world irregular and various, and subject to all manner Bryant's Anc. Myth. vol. i. 473. 4to. ed.

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*

of change. For if there be nothing without a cause, and good cannot afford the cause of evil, there must be some peculiar generation and principle containing the nature of evil as well as of good. And this opinion was held by the mass of the wisest of men. For they believe that there are two Gods, like antagonists, the first, the Creator of Good, the latter of Evil. The better of them they call God, the other Demon, as they are termed by Zoroaster, the magician (sage), who is reported to have lived five thousand years before the Trojan war. He called the first Oromazes, and the other Arimanes; and added, that the first was most like Light, and the latter like Darkness and Error."* The name of this evil genius, 'Agriμavns, whom Plutarch elsewhere denominates πονηρός δαίμων, wicked demon, and who is styled by Diogenes Laertius “Aidns, hell, unquestionably betrays a Hebraic origin. Some derive it from aroom, Chal. arim, astutus, cunning, crafty, the appellation bestowed upon the Serpent, Gen. 3: 1, to which, if the Arabic termination be added, it makes it Ariman. Others deduce it from rim

mah, Chal. rimmi, пhavάv, to deceive, as if it were merely the Greek form of jiharimmehon, the deceiver. Still, in either case, the term shows its affinity with the Hebrew language and with the distinguishing attributes of the Dragon or Old Serpent, the standing adversary of God and man. The name of the idol Rimmon, mentioned 2 Kings 5: 18, is probably to be referred to the same source. Now this mythologic divinity Arimanes is the same with the Typho of the Egyptians, who was represented and worshipped under the form of a serpent. And it is worthy of note that the title Belial in the Scriptures, another name for the evil spirit, of which the Greek form is Bellao, Beliar, is defined by Hesychius by doάnov, dragon.

* Plut. de Isid, et Osirid. p. 407. ed. Ald.

But to what was it owing that the Serpent, the symbol of all ill, the grand personification of mischief and sin, instead of being detested as an enemy, came to be worshipped

as a god, having his altars, and services, and votaries among all pagan nations on earth? Perhaps no more satisfactory solution of this remarkable fact can be given, than to suppose that that which was at first abominated as the symbol of the wicked principle, came in process of time, from a motive of fear, to be regarded as having the power of doing harm to mankind, which it was necessary for them to deprecate by sacrifices and offerings. Hence the Serpent began to be worshipped, and the natural effect. would eventually be, that he should be regarded as a placable deity, having it equally in his power with other tutelary demons to do good and to confer blessings when his favor was secured. "The devil," says Mr. Owen, “who under the shape of a serpent tempted our first parents, has, with unwearied application, labored to deify that animal as a trophy of his first victory over mankind. God having passed sentence upon the serpent, Satan consecrates that form in which he deceived the woman, and introduces it into the world as an object of religious veneration. This he did with a view to enervate the force of the divine oracle with respect to the seed of the woman. Scarcely a nation upon earth, but he has tempted to the grossest idolatry, and in particular got himself to be worshipped in the hideous form of a serpent. 99*

“And his tail drew the third part of the stars of heaven, and did cast them to the earth." A 'tail,' considered as a prophetic emblem, is used to signify two things which frequently concur in the same subject, the one being the cause of the other. (1) It denotes subjection, or oppression under tyranny. In this sense the symbol occurs with the explanation of God himself, Deut. 28: 13, where he

* Owen's Hist. of the Serp. p. 216.

promises blessings to the obedient: And the Lord shall make thee the head and not the tail; and thou shalt be above only, and thou shalt not be beneath.' (2) It signifies a false prophet, impostor, or deceiver, one who propagates corrupt and pernicious doctrines, as the scorpion infuses into his victims the deadly poison of his tail. Is. 9: 14, 15, 'Therefore the Lord will cut off from Israel head and tail, branch and rush, in one day. The ancient and honorable, he is the head; and the prophet that teacheth lies, he is the tail.' Again, Is. 19: 15, 'Neither shall there be any work for Egypt, which the head or tail, branch or rush, may do;' i. e. neither the power of the princes nor the devices of false prophets and enchanters shall be at all availing. 'Stars,' on the other hand, is the well-known symbol of spiritual teachers or ministers of the truth; so that by the Dragon's drawing down from heaven, by means of his tail, a third, that is, a large or very considerable part of the stars, is shadowed forth the exertion of an evil influence through the agency of idolatrous priests and other abettors of Paganism, whereby many of the ministering servants of God, the reputed luminaries of the church, are prevailed upon to apostatize from the true religion, and embrace the errors and abominations of Paganism. But such foul defections are usually the result of the display of the terrors of tyranny. Men are not ordinarily seduced from the true faith into idolatry except from motives of fear. So that the twofold idea of civil oppression and mental delusion is included under the symbol before us. That this has been in all ages the character of the Dragon, history renders indubitable. For this feature of the symbol, like the foregoing, is not to be limited to any particular era, but is to be regarded as descriptive of the general character of the monster to whom it pertains. It was, however, most signally evinced in the history of the persecutions which took place under the Roman emperors.

"In every