Cardinal Pole. "This tyrannical conduct of Henry VIII. to one of the first families in Ireland, is conclufive evidence that he was little fuited to gain favour with the Irish, in the work of Reformation, which he had now taken in hand" and here we cannot avoid noticing, that our Author fupports the very opinion of former writers, which he undertook to controvert; for at page 60 we find the following paffage: but from the introduction of the Reformation into Ireland, we are to look for religious differences fuperadded to the former feeds of internal diffentions. Fierce, cruel, and vindictive, as the Irish were to each other, never till now did religion afford fuel to infurrection." Indeed, the whole account of the forcible introduction of the Proteftant religion, and of the acknowledgement of the King's fupremacy, confirms Leland's and the Irish annalists' teftimony, "that the religious controverfy aggravated the other grievances fo long complained of ;"those who were commiffioned to enforce the fpiritual fupremacy of the King feized the most valuable utenfils and furniture of the Catholic churches, which they expofed to fale without decency or referve. The violence done by one party to the feelings of the other, fuperadded to numberless proVocations and infults, produced collifions in the body politic that threat ened its very existence. O'Neal, O'Bryan, and feveral other Irish Chieftains of lefs repute, made the defence of their religion the caufe, or the pretext, for riding in arms against the English Government; but they failed and fubmitted; and Henry, at length, obtained the title of King of Ireland.

In the next reign, after a ftrong oppofition to the measure, the new Liturgy of the Church of England was performed for the first time on Easter Sunday in the year 1551, in the cathedral of Chrift Church, Dublin. But the bulk of the nation ad. hering to their ancient faith, the caufe of religion became the caufe of the nation; and it fatally feemed as if the English Government were predetermined not only to opprefs, but to irritate the people of Ireland.

The fhort reign of Mary was diftinguished by a temporary refpite to the troubles of Ireland: the civil establish. ment of the Roman Catholic religion

was precifely restored to the state in which it was left by Henry VII. The Proteftant Bifhops were deprived, and Catholic Bishops fubftituted to their Sees. Yet, notwithstanding her zeal for fupporting and promoting the Catholic religion, her administration was injurious to Ireland.

The acceffion of Elizabeth produced a total change in the fate of Ireland. No fooner had the declared for the Reformation, than general difcontent pervaded the whole nation. Every province was thrown into a state of commotion, or difpofed to infurrection. Munfter was distracted by the inve terate enmities of the O'Brians, Thomond, Defmond, and Ormond. Connaught was miferably haraffed by the feuds fubfifting between Clanricarde and another fept of De Burghos. In Leinster, the furvivors of Leix and O'Fally confidered themselves as deprived of their inheritances by fraud and treachery; and the North was threatened with the most formidable infurrection from John O'Neal, who upon the death of his father, in con finement at Dublin, now claimed the royal fovereignty of the whole province of Ulfter.

Under all these unfavourable circumftances, Elizabeth fteadily pursued her defign of firmly establishing the Proteftant religion in Ireland. All the acts of Mary, by which the civil eftablifhment of the Roman Catholic religion had been reftored, were repealed; the ufe of the Common Prayer-Book, as in England, was enjoined; and every perfon obliged to refort to the new church and fervice, under pain of ecclefiaftical cenfures and pecuniary penalties. Thefe ordinances were fol. lowed by a recognition of the Queen's title to the Crown; and to speak or write against it was made treafon. Thefe, and other acts of the firft Irish Parliament in her reign, excited gene. ral difcontent, and produced convulfions and civil wars throughout the whole kingdom for feveral years. Averfions and affections are ufually reciprocal. Elizabeth was hated by the generality of the Irish, and the as cordially detefted them.

The character of this illuftrious female Sovereign of England, which is fo defervedly extolled in the annals of her own country, fuffers feverely in the hiftorical review of her conduct

towards

towards Ireland, which admits of no other palliation, except the following, from our Author: "It may not, perhaps, be altogether candid to lay to the account of Elizabeth every abuse of power by her deputies; the Irish, however, who fmarted under the abufe, would not easily detach the vice of the agents from that of the principal."

Too dreadful, indeed, is the detail of the horrors of the rebellions in Ireland, against the English Government. During the long reign of Elizabeth, that unhappy country felt the weight of the three greatest calamities that can defolate a nation-war, peftilence, and famine-her proudest Chieftains were reduced to fue for mercy, whilst enormities were committed by both parties, in the heat and fury of their enmity," at the very recital of which the foul fickens."

"For a series of years, particularly

during the government of the Queen's favourite, the Earl of Effex, the English arms were unsuccessful. At length, the mutual fyftem of devaltation became fo general, that the produce of the country no longer fufficed to fupport its wretched inhabitants. This calamitous war was at latt put an end to, by the forced fubmiffion of Tyrone, and the difperfion of the other Chieftains who had joined him, in what the Queen's Councils declared to be-An univerfal Irish rebellion, to shake of all English government." Elizabeth did not live to fee the reduction of Ireland completed-this was referved for her fucceffor, whofe acceflion to the throne of England Mr. Plowden confiders "as forming a very notable ara in the mo dern hiftory of that country"-and with which we thall refume our inve tigation of his extensive labours. M. (To be continued in our next.)

THE difcovery of Galvani fm, or, as it has been called, animal electricity, has laid open a field of inquiry, at once fo novel, fo important, and fo diverfified, that no one can wonder at the eagerness and curiofity with which it is itill purfued.

Of the fhock occafioned by the tor. pedo and electrical eel the world had not indeed been ignorant; but that the animal fibre, when deprived of the principle of vitality, thould be liable to a fimilar effect, it remained for the prefent age to discover. This peculiar influence was firit noticed, about thirteen years ago, by Louis Galvani, Profellor of Anatomy at Bologna, and the circumftance which gave rife to it, as may be obferved of many other remarkable difcoveries, was perfectly accidental. An influence fo unufual naturally excited univerfal attention; and it immediately became, and has fince continued, the fubject of minute and anxious investigation. To our own country, ever forward in the cause of science, it is indebted, in a great degree, for its progreflive improvement and elucidation; and though much remains to be done, and this new branch of natural philo

fophy" can only be confidered in its infancy; yet from what is already accomplished, and from a general view of the refults, the greatelt ultimate advantage may be predicted; and it is not perhaps too much to hope mankind may derive the greateit benet. Among others whofe taite or talents led them to this study, the Author of "Elements of Galvaniím" has devoted himself with unremitted induðry; and if fuccefs be proportioned to application and zeal, Mr. Wilkinson will be numbered with those who have contributed most to the advancement of Galvanifin. It feems chiefly to have been Mr. W.'s intention, in this work, to furnish the medical and philofophical ftudent with a comprehenave ac count of Galvanifin, from its com mencement to the prefent time, as the beft foundation for future refearches. With this view, he has collected the various theories of all who have written upon it, beginning with that of Galvani, the founder, and arranging the others according to their periods of publication. Thefe details, felected for the most part from the works of the original writers, together with a few connecting remarks, occupy the

firft Volume, and a confiderable por tion of the fecond: the Elementary part, with the Author's own Theory, fucceeds; and the whole concludes with his application of the Galvanic influence to medical ufes.

With regard to the Author's Theory, Mr. W. undertakes, in an attempt from which the praife of great ingenuity cannot be withheld, to explain all the phenomena of Galvanifm on electrical principles: the former he confiders as "the evolution of electricity from conducting bodies, forming one of their conftituent parts, and disengaged by a chemical procefs, white the latter is the fame principle rendered apparent to our fenfes, by the temporary changes of non-conducting bodies to a conducting itate." All the Galvanic phenomena, therefore, feem to him to accord with the principles of electricity, and to be regulated by the fame laws. Notwithstanding this opinion respecting the identity of Galvanifm and electricity, Mr. W. conceives, according to our prefent knowledge, they may be thus diftinguished: "Galvanifm is the portion of electricity which forms a component part of the conducting body in the act of undergoing a change from a greater to a lefs itate, while electricity is the refult of a temporary change in non-conducting bodies, infomuch that their capacities become by attrition momentarily increafed. Galvanifm," he adds, is never produced by any changes in non-conductors, while electricity is produced by them alone." Another paflage thus defcribes the nature of Galvanic combination: "Two fimilar metals, and an interpofed fluid, or a fingle metal expofed to the action of two different fluids, or any one of the conducting fabitances on which unequal actions can be induced by different fluids, conftitutes a fingle Galvanic combination: a feries of fuch combinations is denominated a Galvanic battery." Mr. W. has certainly carried his views of Galvanifm further than any of his predeceffors. Time, however, "the grand difcoverer," must determine how far he is juftified in the fentiments he has formed; and without entering further on the fubject, it may be fufficient in this place to obferve, that his theory feems neither

to have been haftily formed, nor to he deftitute of many arguments in its favour; though it must be acknowledged, the fuppofition that "Galvanifm is the very intermediate principle between matter and fpirit," will fcarcely be received without further information and more certain grounds. In a future edition, it may be worth Mr. W.'s confideration, whether the title of his work might not be altered, fo as to convey a better idea of its contents: the hiftorical details clearly form the prominent feature in the work, and should have been diftinguished as fuch.

It were greatly to be wished, that the medical and most important application of Galvanitin had promifed better profpects of fuccefs: after the most careful experiments, few determinate data have been obtained. In fome paralytic cafes, and even in deafnefs, it has not been thought entirely ufelefs; and in fpaf modic affections it feems to have afforded invariable relief; neither has it been altogether inefficacious in relieving, or at least moderating, mental derange ment of fome peculiar kinds; and ftrong hopes are entertained, from what has already been attempted, of its good effects in cales of fufpended animation. Every one will agree with Mr. W. that this fubject is worthy of molt ferious attention. Then, indeed, will the difcovery of Galvani fhine with brightest luftre, and its true value be eftimated, when it contributes to foothe the bed of fickness, and heal the sufferings of our common nature: and perhaps it may be added, nothing short of fuch a benefit to mankind can compenfate for the experimental cruelties inficted on dumb and unoffending animals; cruelties at which the heart of humanity bleeds, and "which,' as Mr. W. truly oblerves, "can only be juftifiable when the refults may prove of advantage to our fellow-creatures."

Upon the whole, this work may be confidered as prefenting an accumulation of valuable facts relative to the promulgation, eftablishment, progrefs, and prefent ftate of Galvanifm, as furnishing the ground-work for future improvement, and as holding forth a reafonable expectation of the most important advantages to be derived from its further cultivation.

The

of a century, of a practice of piety called "The Whole Duty of Man," the edition of which now before the writer of this Review bears the date of the year 1698; and by the extra ordinary reception it has met with from that remote era to the prefent time, it may be prefumed that our forefathers confidered it to be what its title profeffes, the Whole Duty of Man. In fact, it contains inftructions for leading a godly life, agreeable to the rules laid down in the Holy Scriptures, to enable us to fulfil our duty to God and Man. But as differences of opinion have arifen amongst Chriftians, and, in process of time, have produced various Sects, forming themselves into feparate religious communities, which in England, and more efpecially in the metropolis, have increafed and multiplied in a wonderful manner, it has been difcovered by fome of their pious minifters, that the old Whole Duty of Man was imperfet. Under this perfuafion, "a New Whole Duty of Man made its appearance a few years fince, and became a popular book; and to clofe the account, the Complete Duty of Man," from the Bath prefs, in the courfe of the prefent year, lays claim to the attention of pious Chriftians, on account of the improvements alledged to have been made on the plans of the Old and New Whole Duty

of Man.

It is the bufinefs of an impartial examiner to lay afide all prejudice, to entertain no favourite opinion, nor any attachment to particular fyftems; but, after a fair comparifon, to fubmit to the confideration of his readers the merits of each of these performances; all of them having been compofed with the laudable defign of promoting the temporal and eternal welfare of their fellow-mortals.

To begin with the oldeft-we obferve with pleafure, that the model must have been excellent, fince it has been clofely followed in the outlines by the fubfequent writers. Our Duty to God is, with ftrict propriety, the leading fubject of the three treatifes;

VOL. XLV, JAN. 1804.

each other, as they are enjoined by the laws of God, and the civil ordinances of the government under which we live, explained and adapted to our relative iituations in life, follow next in their proper order. The feveral fubjects are divided into fuitable portions for Sunday evenings' lectures in families; and forms of prayers, to ailiit families and individuals in their pri vate devotions, as well upon ordinary as extraordinary occafions: to illuf trate this diftinction, let it be remembered, that the authors take it for granted, that all well-difpofed perfons offer up daily prayers and thankgivings, morning and evening, to Almighty God; thefe facrifices, therefore, may well be ftyled ordinary occafions-and thofe which are offered up, preparatory to receiving, and after taking the Sacrament, in time of ficknefs, domestic or public calamity, &c. are denominated extraordinary. Such is the general plan of the three treatifes.

We shall now point out the effential difference betwixt them. The origi nal Whole Duty of Man is written in a plain, unadorned, familiar file, fuited to the capacities of the middling and lower clafies of the people; it is clear and concife in its inftructions relative to all the moral rules of conduct through life; it teaches men how to live foberly, righteoufly, and godly in this prefent world; and on those myftic points of our religion, the redemption, the life to come, the day of judgment, and future rewards and punithments, the author has followed the clear light of fcripture, which he has not obfcured by any vain imaginations of his own. With the orthodox members of the eftablished Church of England, who think religious reformation has gone far enough, it will always preferve the high eftimation in which it has been held from generation to generation.

But the New Whole Duty of Man" will be preferred by the nume rous diffenters from the established Church, who, whilt they approve of

G

fome

fome parts of its worship, think it deficient in others, especially as it profefles to be fuperior in Faith to the old, which, the author of this compilation afferts, contained no articles of Faith, and is confined folely to practical piety. Under this idea, it will not be matter of furprize that Seventeen editions, in different fizes, of this New Duty of Man, fhould have been bought up, by the truly faithful, in the courfe of a few years, ending with the year 1761.

And though laft, yet not the leaft in real merit, comes the Complete Duty of Man, which not having been noticed in due order at the time of its firft publication, we have been called upon to give fome account of it from the Seventh Edition just published, and printed by and for that long eftablished and respectable bookfeller, S. Hazard, of Bath.

By an advertisement to the Fifth edition, preferved in the prefent impreffion, it appears, that it has undergone feveral alterations and improvements fince its first publication, particularly in the third edition, by the author. The ftyle, at the request of fome friends, who thought it too prolix, and not fufficiently imple, was fo altered as to appear in fome inftances like an abridgement." It rarely happens that a perfon is able to alter, with out injury, his own peculiar ftile. In endeavouring to do this, the author has been thought by many to have diminished the richness, the harmony, and the dignity of his compofition. The prefent edition, therefore, has been printed from the fecond. The Editor (not named) has, however, improved it by a careful collation with the third edition, and by the adoption of fome of the alterations in it. He has alfo ventured to make a few corrections in the file himself; a liberty which he fhould not have prefumed to take, had not his relation to the author given him a fort of literary property in his works, and had not his intention been fanctioned by the express approbation of the author, when he was too infirm to undertake it himself." What is here applied to the Fifth, we prefume is intended likewife to be equally applicable to the Seventh edition, now under confideration, as no notice is taken of any difference between them. The other alterations, with respect to arrangement of the various fubjects,

and the divifion of Chapters, is fully explained in the fame advertisement.

The plan of the work is fully opened in the Preface, in which we find the following doctrinal propofitions :

Whatever difputes may have been raised concerning the nature of faving Faith, it is allowed on all hands to be one of the most important Christian virtues, and effential to the character of a Chriftian.-I understand by it, a dependence upon the righteoufnefs and death of Chrift, as a full fatisfaction to the juftice of God for the fin of the world, in the breach of his law; and the fole ground of our acceptance to the reward of eternal life. The various modes of explaining that Faith, is what conftitutes an effential difference in the opinions of pious and well-difpofed Christians with refpect to each other; and the zeal demonftrated in promul gating particular, and even fingular, tenets refpecting this grand point, has often carried men of exemplary conduct in other refpects beyond the bounds of moderation. We do not find any fuch unbecoming warmth of temper in this compofition; but as far as we can judge, its fyftem of faith is calculated for the meridian of the New Methodists, or Westleyian fect of Chriftian believers, who are multiplying daily in every city and town of the united kingdom, on the great continent of America, and in our Weft India Islands.

The following is our Author's explanation of the definition of faving Faith, which he humbly fubmits to the confideration of his readers :-" Sin is the tranfgreffion of the law of the most high God; which law, the moment it is broken, fubjects us to its penalty. Of this the punishment of the first fin committed by the firit man is a molt memorable inftance. God is unchangeable; and as the first fin could not be pardoned, fo neither can any fin we commit, as being an act of difobedience and rebellion against him, be pardoned-but fubjects us to the penalty, not of temporal death, because that is common to all mankind, but to eternal death-the fact then is certain, the wages of fin is death, and always will be fo, while God continues the fame; and whilft a finner remains unpardoned, his foul is fepa rated from God, and he is thut out from the book of eternal life-How then is he to be pardoned? The ex

pediency