the year of his birth from that of his accession, and is therefore liable to no error greater than a fraction of a year. Following this is the expectation of life at the epoch of accession as deduced from the combined experience' table of mortality. This expectation is taken in the usual way, as the number of years after which it would be an even chance whether the individual was living or dead. Although this is not a mathematically rigorous definition, yet in the case under consideration it differs from the rigorous one only by an amount too small to be worth consideration. Following this is given the number of years which the incumbent actually survived after entering upon the duties of his office.

summary way. Of the eight Presidents up to Van Buren inclusive, all but one lived out the full term of life allotted them by the tables, the single exception being Washington. On the other hand, of the thirteen men who have held the office since Van Buren, all but four have died before living out their allotted term. This fact raises the question whether we can attribute these premature deaths to the more arduous nature of the duties which the President is now called upon to perform. From this point of view, the dividing line would not be between Van Buren and Harrison, but rather between John Quincy Adams and Jackson, because it was under the latter that the change in question took place. Perhaps we ought to introduce a third epoch with the civil war. Making such a division, and omitting the cases of Lincoln and Garfield, the exhibit, which seems to show a total deficit of 53 years since Jackson, stands thus:

Expected Actual years. years.

Washington

1732

1789

1799

Adams, J.

1735

1797

1826

Jefferson.

1743

1801

1826

Madison..

1751

1809

1836

58

Notwithstanding the color thus given to the view that the modern President is liable to be broken down by the duties of his office, it must be considered, that, taking these numbers as they stand, the number of cases is too small to sustain such a conclusion. There is, however, another circumstance to be considered. It is a wellknown fact that the tabular expectation of life has been considerably exceeded in the general average of men who, during the present generation, have insured their lives. How great the increase is, cannot at present be exactly stated, but I do not think that it is less than one-fourth. It will also, I think, be conceded that all who have acceded to the presidency have been men with good insurable lives. If, now, we increase the expectation of life by one-fourth in the last two lines above, we shall have a decidedly greater discrepancy: namely, expected years, 252; actual years, 149. If it were allowable to include the cases of Lincoln and Garfield, which are omitted in this comparison, the discrepancy would be greatly increased.

While the danger of assassination has undoubtedly been greatly lessened by the deserved fate which the two assassins of Presidents met, I do not think we can consider it as a vanishing quantity. I think assassination should be regarded as a real danger to which a President is subject, and that a prudent life-insurance company would consider that fact in deciding upon an application for insurance.

Since, even when we admit the case of assassination, there is a large falling-off in the years of life, the question presents itself, whether this is due mainly or wholly to the arduous character of the duty which the President is called upon to perform. Of course it is impossible to answer this question from statistics: in fact, it must be admitted that the above summary does not prove the diminished viability of the class under consideration to any greater extent than to render it somewhat probable. Statistics can at the present stage do nothing more than disprove or substantiate a priori conclusions from physiological considerations. If we eliminate from the statistical results the probable effect of the lack of out-door recreation, as well as the lack of incentive to adopt that regimen best suited to a sedentary life, we shall probably find no such discrepancy as would justify the view that a President is liable to die from the arduous character of his duties. S. N.

THE SCHOOLMASTERS' CONVENTION AT

PHILADELPHIA.

IN answer to a call issued by the heads of prominent preparatory schools in or near Philadelphia, more than one hundred teachers engaged in preparing boys for college assembled on Nov. 26 in the building of the University of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia. The address of welcome was given by Dr. Pepper, provost of the university, who laid great stress on the waste of time and energy caused by the sudden break between school and college. He said that to devise means to fill up this gap, and make the preparatory school an organic part of the education that ends in the college or university, was the object of the convention.

Professor James of the University of Pennsylvania made a strong plea for the technical education of teachers. The teacher's position should be considered as an end in itself, not as a steppingstone to more permanent employment. In Germany this requirement was fully recognized. There, with few exceptions, the teachers have received a technical training, the result of which was to give them not only some information which they could impart to their pupils, but also some knowledge of how to impart it. They are acquainted with the history of education, know something of the long line of thought of which they form a link, are taught what their place in the existing educational system is and how they can best fill it. The one method and the best method of elevating the teaching in this country is to make teaching a real and an honorable profession. For this purpose the teachers must be

trained to be teachers, and an essential part of this training is the study of educational history and systems.

Mr. MacAlister, superintendent of public schools of Philadelphia, warmly upheld Professor James's position, and testified as a man of practical experience to the value and efficiency of the study of pedagogy as a science.

At the session on Nov. 27, Professor West of Princeton college presented an admirable paper on the question, How to improve our classical training.' The classics have just survived a severe attack, and for the time being there is peace; but a second attack is sure to come, and the problem is to take such steps as will enable an effective answer to be made to it. To do this, we must improve the teaching of the classics. The classics are attacked because they are poorly taught. There is no method, or at least no rational one. In order to get a rational and elastic though definite method, it is necessary to consider the nature of classical study, the condition of the student, and the end to be gained. The problem of teaching the classics is a unique one there is more in it than the language drill, more than the compliance with the requisites of a liberal education. It includes nothing less than the opening up of a new world it is an embodiment not only of Greek and Roman history, but of the national history of Greek and Roman thought. The end of classical training is to enable the student to feel at home in this world, and to appreciate it. To do this, no doubt a certain amount of literature must be sacrificed and dissected in acquiring the technique. But that is simply preparatory: when it is over, then the real study of the classics begins. The main difficulty in realizing this method of teaching the classics is the lack of teachers who really know them. Teachers trained as teachers, and trained as classical scholars (not necessarily as philologians), would soon show the real educational value of classical study, and give the best possible answer to those who question its usefulness.

The next session was held at Haverford college, and was devoted to the discussion of the relation of the fitting schools to the colleges. The discussion was quite a general one, and included the questions of admitting to college on certificate from the heads of schools; the advisability of having a preliminary examination a year before entrance on elementary subjects; the uselessness of petty conditions, and the abuses of this method of admittance; and the necessity of recognizing the various interests of candidates in the entrance examinations. The discussion showed how generally the faults of our college system are felt by

the schoolmasters, and how anxious they are for changes to be made.

A constitution was adopted by the teachers present, and it was decided to hold quarterly meetings. The Rev. Dr. Robins was elected president, and Mr. George F. Martin, secretary.

The meeting was eminently satisfactory, and the organization has come to fill a real want in our educational system.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

THE American association for the advancement of physical education held its second annual meeting at the Adelphi academy, Brooklyn, on Nov. 26.

Its

This association was organized one year ago under the auspices of such well-known men as Professor Hitchcock of Amherst, Dr. D. A. Sargent of Harvard, Dr. Hartwell of Johns Hopkins, Mr. William Blaikie, and others. By the terms of its constitution, it consists of active members who are directly engaged in physical education, of associate members including all who are interested in the cause of physical education, and desire to be associated with the society, and of honorary members, who shall be well known as patrons of the cause of physical education. membership is nearly one hundred, and is constantly and largely increasing. The general interest which it has aroused is shown by the fact that delegations from various societies throughout the west, including St. Louis and Milwaukee, were present, and took an active part in the proceedings. At the opening of the session, Mr. Charles Pratt read an address of welcome, in which he said that the ten thousand teachers of New York and Brooklyn had one of the most magnificent promenades in the world, and that, if they would walk the length of the Brooklyn bridge both ways every day, their health would be much benefited. He would have every one sign a pledge that he would solemnly observe all the laws of health, and do what he could to lead others to do the same. He believes that if each individual should take proper care of himself, not only in matters of exercise, but in other respects, the work done in five hours would be of more value than that now done in ten. Prof. E. Hitchcock of Amherst college followed with a paper on The need of anthropometry in physical training.' From the earliest times an effort had been made to establish some foundation upon which observations could be scientifically made. Such an attempt could be traced back to India. The same was true of the Greeks. Thus we have the various systems, some regarding one foot of the height as a standard, and others the length of the hand and the vertebrae. The basis of all

must be a knowledge of the human body, what it can do, its various temperaments, and how it can be kept up to the most perfect condition. The largest men are not necessarily the men who can endure the most fatigue, or who best resist disease. Into the problem many things enter, the pedigree, including parents and grand-parents; did they live to old age, and did they die of disease or accident? what is the condition of the individual's heart? of his lungs, his eyes, his ears? It is a very difficult matter to ascertain just what a typical or ideal man should be, and therefore it is difficult to select a standard of comparison. The author thinks, however, that the height of individuals is the best basis, and would suggest a centimetre or one-half inch as the unit for charts of anthropometry. At Amherst accurate measurements are taken of each student who enters college; and these are repeated occasionally, so that now there are records of one thousand students. It is the practice at this institution to examine each man with great care, and to advise him as to the exercise which he should take. Professor Hitchcock, in closing, said that every instructor should take such measurements, and be satisfied with simply recording them. The data which we have now are very crude and in- . complete, and no deductions can be made from them. We must continue our observations as opportunity offers; and, though we may not live to obtain much that is practical from them, let us nevertheless do our work accurately and well, that succeeding generations may profit from what we have done. The next paper on the programme was 'The physiology of exercise,' by E. M. Hartwell of Johns Hopkins university. Dr. Hartwell laid great stress on the point that exercise had more in view than the simple development of muscle. While this was in a sense important, it was only half the truth. Proper exercise trains the nerve-centres, the brain and the spinal cord, as well as the muscles. And this is exceedingly important, and should never be lost sight of. The following papers were read at the afternoon session: Physical training of public school children, by W. C. Joslin of Staten Island academy; Educational gymnastics, by Prof. Carl Betz of Kansas City, Mo.; German system of training teachers at the Milwaukee normal school, by C. G. Rathmann, St. Louis, Mo.; and Physical training from a medical stand-point, by A. M. Starkloff, president N. A. Turnerbund, St. Louis, Mo. Very interesting exhibitions of gymnastics were given by classes from the Brooklyn normal school of physical training, the turnvereins of New York and Brooklyn, and the Adelphi academy.

GEOGRAPHICAL NEWS.

M. DE LESSEPS, on his arrival at Paris, reiterated the assertion that the Panama canal will be opened in 1889, "even if the most difficult part of the cutting is not then complete." He added, that the portion then navigable will demonstrate that the original calculations were well founded.

The latest rumors about the Kongo are, that the station at Stanley Falls (the highest station established by Stanley) has been abandoned, owing to the continued hostility of the Arab slave-traders.

English capitalists having definitely decided to have nothing to do with the proposed Kongo railway, it is stated that a committee has been formed in Brussels to proceed to the Kongo and decide upon the feasibility of the project on the spot.

There are so many travellers now exploring the central portion of Asia, that it is extremely difficult to keep track of them. Dr. Radde arrived at Sarakhs on the 22d of July, after a successful journey through the now familiar regions of Merv, Penjdeh, Meruchak, Zulfikar, Askabad. Thence he repaired to Tiflis, where he arrived in the early part of September. As might have been expected, he suffered severely from the heat.

Two Frenchmen, MM. Capus and Bonvalot, traversed a portion of the same ground, spending a whole month in Merv. They reported the moving sand-hills, or 'Barchaus,' to be great obstacles to the construction of the Transcaspian railway. Their intention, when last heard from, was to search for a route to Balkh via the Amu-Daria. Thence they would attempt to reach Kafiristan over the Hindu Kush, hoping to find a pass free from snow, notwithstanding the lateness of the season. They have since been captured by the Afghans, and are now in close confinement.

There is a clear and valuable account of the recent troubles in Afghanistan, from a Russian point of view, in the London Times for Nov. 1 and 12. This purports to be a translation of a synopsis of a Russian blue-book.' It appeared originally in the Journal de St. Petersbourg.

The officers in charge of the Indian survey have already surveyed Burma from Mandalay southward along the Irawaddy as far as Pagan. It is probable that a rough sketch-map of upper Burma on a quarter-inch scale will be published before long.

Among recent school-maps we note 'The British empire on a uniform scale of 107 geographical miles to an inch,' by William Shaw (London, Philip & Son). Naturally the most extensive limits have been assigned to the British possessions; and this in some cases, as in Africa, to the great injury of other colonial powers. Alto

gether, the map, though useful, reflects scant credit on its author.

A good statement of the present condition of the British colonies, from the side of the colonies themselves, is Her majesty's colonies: a series of original papers issued under the authority of the royal commission.' The introduction is by Seeley, whose Expansion of England' has introduced him to a host of readers.

Determined to be up with the times, the geographers of Australasia have formed a geographical society, which has flourished so luxuriantly that a branch society, restricted to South Australia, has already put forth its first volume of Proceedings.

THE TRAINING OF THE MEMORY. SYSTEMS of mnemonics are exceedingly numerous, and the number of persons who have discovered "the quickest and best way to acquire a perfect memory" is legion. Every once in a while some new and absurd book on the training of the memory is foisted upon the public, and each has its dupes. The trouble with them all is the same, ignorance of the physiological conditions of memory, and a very inaccurate acquaintance with psychology. Therefore we must plead guilty to the possession of a prejudice against any book on the education of the memory. It was with this prejudice that we took up Dr. Holbrook's little book; but the perusal of the preface and the introductory sections alone proved that for once at least a prejudice against books on training the memory was unfounded. Dr. Holbrook writes with a physiological and psychological knowledge of his subject, and he treats it in a plain, straightforward, common-sense way. After showing the physiological basis of memory, he draws the practical conclusion that robust health, a well-nourished brain, and a healthy nervous system are the normal physiological conditions of a good memory. The psychological conditions are strict attention to sensory impressions, repetitions of them, and the formation of chains of association for them. The value of association may be tested by any one who is foolish enough to doubt it, by making the test given by Dr. Holbrook on p. 113, quoted from Dr. Pick's work on training the memory. We ourselves have tried it with several persons, and found it a most excellent and practical illustration. The practice of making notes of important matters is adverted to and commended, even if the notes are at once thrown away, because the process of writing the fact, name, or date down increases our attention to it,

1 How to strengthen the memory. By M. L. HOLBROOK, M.D. New York, Holbrook, 1886. 12°.

and deepens the original sense-impression. Dr. Holbrook gives wholesome advice to persons of weak memories, and shows how such may be trained to become very retentive and accurate. A few judicious paragraphs are given on the art of forgetting, instruction in which is quite as necessary for that class of persons who insist on overloading their memories with all sorts of mental rubbish, as is instruction in remembering for those minds which seem to retain nothing.

LONDON LETTER.

AN interesting discovery has very recently been made in the direct line between Pompeii and Nocera. The digging of a well in a vineyard revealed the existence of a street of tombs, about one thousand feet east of the amphitheatre of Pompeii. If the whole street is as closely lined with tombs as is the portion laid bare, it will be one of the most important discoveries lately made in that part of the world; but unfortunately money is wanting, so that the excavation is going on very slowly. Most of the tombs are covered with rude inscriptions painted in red, many of them being of the nature of advertisements, the tombs thus serving the purpose of a newspaper along the much-frequented road. The exact date has not yet been accurately ascertained, but they probably belong to the periods of Julius Caesar and Tiberius. A contrast may be drawn between the condition of Pompeii and that of Pergamon, which, although double the size of Pompeii, has, thanks to the energy of the Prussian government, been laid clear within eight years. In the latter, beautiful, finely painted statues, votive offerings to Athena, and belonging to the sixth century B.C., have been found buried in the earth, and literally forming the foundation of the houses above. Their style of art is one hitherto not supposed possible at so remote a period, and they cause Pompeii to appear quite modern.

The discovery of an aqueduct which probably dates back to the time of King Solomon is reported from Jerusalem, and it is confidently anticipated that the further excavation of it will bring to light some extremely interesting and valuable inscriptions.

The following particulars with regard to the Severn tunnel, which shortens the distance between the South Wales coal-field and the south and west of England, and which was opened yesterday for passenger traffic, may be of interest. The first sod was turned in March, 1873. The length of the tunnel is 7,664 yards, or 44 miles, of which 2 miles are under the river-bed, with a minimum cover' of 45 feet, and a maximum of

100; all this portion being bored through bard sandstone, conglomerate, and red marl, and costing roughly £100 per yard. The works have been flooded by land-springs four times, and the total cost is about two millions sterling. The tunnel is lined throughout with vitrified brick, set in about three feet thickness of cement.

It is announced to-day that Professor Rücker, F.R.S., has been appointed by the lord president of the council to the professorship of physics in the Normal school of science, and Royal school of mines, South Kensington, London, made vacant by the death of Professor Guthrie, F.R.S. The friends of the latter will regret to learn that his widow and family are but ill provided for, in consequence of the numerous family claims upon him during his life, and it is probable that the Physical society of London will start a fund on their behalf. Professor Rücker was, until recently, professor of physics at the Yorkshire college, Leeds, after which he unsuccessfully contested a parliamentary election for that city.

The reading and discussion of Mr. Gisbert Kapp's paper on the 'Predetermination of dynamo characteristics' have occupied three evenings (one a special and extra meeting) at the Society of telegraph engineers and electricians. The paper dealt with the construction beforehand of what may be called the idle' characteristic curve of dynamos; and the discussion turned in great part upon the questions of magnetic resistance, and especially of air resistance, as well as on the analogy between the electric and magnetic circuits. Before commencing his paper, Mr. Kapp stated that only two days previously he had found that many of his points had been anticipated in a paper on dynamo-electric machinery, by Dr. J. and Dr. E. Hopkinson, communicated to the Royal society in May last, but which had only just been published. It is greatly to be regretted that the routine of the Royal society prevents an earlier publication of important scientific papers which have a direct bearing upon industrial progress.

One result of the more extended adoption of the electric light in public buildings in London is a notable increase in the number of winter exhibitions of pictures. Nearly all artistic societies of any importance now hold their winter exhibitions' with as great regularity as the summer ones, which open in May. The electric lighting of the Grosvenor gallery, due chiefly to Sir Coutts Lindsay, first demonstrated the advantages which were thus obtainable.

The disinfection of articles of clothing, and of dwellings, after infectious ailments, is admittedly one of the most important duties which attends the work of preventing disease. A recent report