rejected, does not alter the case. The man who tries to reason without rigid hypotheses cripples his power of investigation. Any one who understands the real power and importance of verification is justly indignant at any such conception of science as will prevent the use of verification as a means of discovery. The failures of the attempt to work without rigid hypotheses, from Lord Bacon down, have been so conspicuous that they hardly need repetition. Where the German school of economists has made any advance in the field of political economy itself, it has been done by an abandonment of the so-called historical method, and by a rigid application of deductive reasoning combined with careful verification. It is Cohn, and not Roscher, who represents the really fruitful line of German thought; and, whatever Cohn may at times have professed, he relies strongly both on abstract reasoning and on the rigidity of law.

There is one class of cases where these distinctions fall away, and where the Baconian method is a good one. When a science is so crude as to be mainly occupied with description and classification, there is little chance for the use of rigid hypotheses. Here the distinction between the material and the science falls away. Physics remained in this condition till the seventeenth century; chemistry, till the eighteenth; it was not till the nineteenth that'natural history' began to give place to biology.

Sociology as a whole can hardly be said to have advanced beyond this stage; but certain departments of sociology are distinctly beyond it, notably law and political economy. They have reached the point where it is possible to frame hypotheses and to carry out deductions and verifications. The field of each science is limited; but, within its proper sphere, each is a true science. It is right enough to say that each is a part of something greater. In the future we may hope that a scientific sociology will be developed which shall include many other sciences. But we have a science of political economy, and we have not as yet a science of sociology in any thing like the same sense. To reject the part which we have for the sake of the whole, which we have not, would be the extreme of folly. It would be the same thing as to have rejected the undulatory theory of light fifty years ago because the correlation of forces was not yet discovered. The theory of light was but a part of the truth; but it was only on the basis of such parts that the whole could be built up. A scientific part is a better starting-point than an unscientific whole.

There is another class of dangers to which we are exposed when we deny all independence to

economic reasoning. The man or state that refuses to recognize the rigidity of economic laws is likely to suffer for it, sooner or later, in his practical experience.

It is impossible for a man not to let his habits of thought affect his habits of action. If he is accustomed to make rigid assumptions, he tries to make things conform to these assumptions, and to insist that something is wrong where they do not. If, on the other hand, he reasons loosely, he comes to act recklessly, and to believe that his own luck or skill will save him from the necessity of careful calculation. The error of reckless overconfidence is at once more destructive and more common than the error of fatalism; and any thing which encourages the former is usually more dangerous than that which encourages the latter.

If a nearly spent cannon-ball is slowly rolling toward you, the natural and sensible thing to do is to get out of the way. The fatalist may refuse to do so because of his blind belief in fate. The fool may refuse to do so because he thinks it is not coming fast enough to hurt him. Now, either extreme is bad; but the practical danger is from the latter. The experience of army surgeons will show that in the instance given there are probably ten fools to one fatalist.

And in like manner the danger of believing that economic laws can be interfered with by human effort is ten times greater than the danger of an extreme belief in laissez-faire. Human nature is far more inclined to the former error. Where the economists make a mistake in opposing state interference (as when they tried to stop English factory legislation), people will generally take their own course in spite of them. Where they make the mistake of not opposing it, people will be only too ready to seize upon their arguments. And the same thing holds true of individual action as well as of state action. The danger of believing that the results of past experience are uncertain is far greater than the danger of believing that we are helpless to improve upon them.

- are

As a matter of fact, there are limits within which the results of past experience are surprisingly rigid. That the worse currency drives out the better; that food prices depend upon the margin of cultivation rather than upon rent; that reckless marriage means starvation wages, laws which nations have been for centuries attempting to disregard, and of which they are hardly yet learning the full force. They mark limits, and effective limits, upon legislative activity. As long as political economy is occupied with defining those limits, it can maintain its claim to the position of an authoritative science. It says to the legislator, 'Thus far shalt thou go, and no

high schools, academies, and colleges of the state. The history of the university amply justifies its existence. Starting in 1784 with only one weak college King's college, now Columbia - under its control, it embraced, in 1885, 45 colleges having 784 instructors and 11,702 students, and 1,571 graduates during the year. The total value of this college property is $23,164,612.82, and their yearly expenditure amounts to $1,787,391.51. Besides this, there were, in 1885, 283 academies under the control of the regents of the university, and 72,426 answer-papers were examined and passed upon under the supervision of the regents during the year. The chancellor stated that post-graduate courses, with corresponding examinations and degrees, were now under consideration. He concluded, "Read the record of these convocations, and I venture to say that no similar records of educational value can be found. Shall we consider these convocations a failure and nothing worth? It is true, the university does not confer many degrees, because that is a power concurrent with the colleges, and it has been thought best to leave that duty mainly with them. I think I have proved that in its past and present the duties of the university have been defined by law, and that it has performed all the duties devolving upon it; that the corporate name is not a misnomer, and should not mislead; and that the regents are doing too noble a work to be abolished or merged with any other body of educational workers."

The main interest of the first morning session centred in the discussion of the subject of manual training, which was introduced in a paper by Principal Love of Jamestown. Mr. Love claimed that the test of the practicability of manual training must be its usefulness. Any system of training that does not start out with the idea that the scholar must become a producer is defective. Principal Love detailed the workings of a system of manual training introduced by him in Jamestown, asserting that it did not detract from, but rather added to, the quantity and quality of intellectual work performed by the pupils. His account showed a gratifying success with an experiment which must sooner or later become general.

The afternoon session was given up to a discussion of the question, 'Has the college a logical place in the American system of education?' The subject was introduced by papers by Prof. Oren Root of Hamilton college and Prof. S. G. Williams of Cornell. Both essayists, as well as Vice-Chancellor MacCracken of the University of the city of New York, who opened the discussion of the papers, combated the view expressed in some quarters, notably by Professor West of Princeton, in a paper read before the National teachers' associa

tion at Saratoga in 1885, - that the work of the college would ultimately fall to the academies and universities, and the college itself fall away as unnecessary. In opposing this view, all the speakers were agreed that the college continues and completes the boy's education, begun in the school and academy, while the university trains educated men in special branches. Professor Williams attributed much of the misunderstanding on this subject to the fact that many colleges were forgetting their true position and function in their endeavor to become universities. Professor Williams said that the ideal college course would, in his opinion, call for sixteen hours of recitation per week, devoted as follows: language, one-half; mathematics (meaning algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, and these only), one-eighth his tory, a little more than one-eighth ; and elementary science, including civics and psychology, a little more than one-quarter. To such a curriculum elocution and gymnastics could easily be added, and it would serve to train the pupil as the college ought to train him, and did train before it was carried away by a wrong ambition.

For Wednesday morning's session, Dr. L. Sauveur was announced to explain and defend the natural method' of teaching languages. He was not able to be present, and Mr. C. W. Bardeen briefly presented the chief points of excellence in connection with the natural method. Principal George C. Sawyer of Utica followed with a scholarly and exhaustive attack on the 'natural method' as a fraud and a sham. Dr. Sawyer claimed, that, under this method, all the work devolves upon the teacher, and the pupil picks up, with no disciplinary training, a parrot-like acquaintance with a limited vocabulary. Moreover, the main value from studying a language lies in learning to read it, to imbibe the thought and spirit and culture of another people, and not merely to hold a conversation in it.

The discussion was continued by Professor Wells of Union college, Principal Farr of Glens Falls, and Principal Cheney of Kingston, all of whom opposed the so-called 'natural method,' and defended the old or rational method both because of its practical results and its disciplinary training.

Dr. James Hall, director of the New York state museum of natural history, followed with a brief account of that museum and its educational work. Dr. Hall said that it represented every department of natural history. The mineral wealth of the state should also be represented. Nearly ten years ago there were distributed to schools and colleges about twenty thousand specimens in geology and mineralogy, and the museum is now prepared to dis

tribute about five thousand more authentic specimens, which is a valuable adjunct to the teachers' work in these schools. In this way the educational use of the museum is manifested by its publications and its distributions of specimens. The museum will continue to aid the cause of education and be a part of the educational system of the state. Teachers and investigators are invited to seek assistance and information of the museum ; and, if institutions want collections augmented from its duplicates, the museum of Albany will be glad to respond as readily and as heartily as it

can.

Principal C. T. R. Smith of Lansingburgh presented a paper, which was an able exposition of the desirability of allowing plane geometry to precede algebra in the regents' course of study. Professor Root of Hamilton agreed with Principal Smith, and showed clearly by concrete examples how the logical and natural order would be restored by the proposed change. Considerable discussion followed, the general sentiment being that the change should at least be permitted as an alternative even if not sanctioned entirely.

An unusually large and brilliant audience assembled in the evening, when President McCosh of Princeton was announced to deliver an address on elective studies in college. Dr. McCosh opened with the proposition that a college or university should, so far as its funds would permit, offer instruction in every branch of literature and science, carefully excluding all that is merely showy. Modern education, he continued, began in the seventh century with the foundation of the Cathedral schools with their Trivium and Quadrivium. At this time there was no possibility of electives, because during its course the university of that day could teach all that was known. A new era began with the Renaissance, and again in the seventeenth century the subjects of study were greatly increased by the new mathematics of Descartes, Newton, and Leibnitz. In the eighteenth century were founded the Royal society in England, the French academy, and the Berlin academy of sciences. Chemistry, biology, and botany became sciences, and were placed in the curriculum. This great increase in subjects of study has gone on, until, in our day, it is absolutely impossible to master them all. The age of universal scholars, of Erasmus, of Scaliger, of Leibnitz, has gone never to return.

Having established the fact that an elective system is now necessary in our colleges, the further question arises, how is it to be regulated? Having reference only to candidates for the B.A. degree, which implies a general culture and scholarship, the standard of which we must not allow to be lowered, we may say, first, that there should be prescribed studies in every year of the college course. These must embrace what experience has proven the fundamental and disciplinary studies, both for the purpose of training an accurate and scholarly mind and for bearing practical fruit. The principal of these is language. Our own language should have the first and the last place in every scheme of instruction, but every educated man should know at least two languages in addition to his own. The Greek language should by all means be maintained as a requisite for the degree of B.A., as being the most perfect and subtle of languages, and as being the medium of the grandest literature of the ancient world. In the second place, no man is a scholar who has not studied mathematics: therefore they should be prescribed in a certain degree. And, thirdly, no man is educated who has not some knowledge of philosophy, including under this head the social and political sciences. With a well-arranged plan of obligatory studies, embracing language, science, and philosophy, should be combined an indefinite number of elective studies. No electives should be permitted in the freshman year. This year should be spent in the thorough mastery of the elementary branches and in becoming acquainted with the general system of the college, so that the pupil may be prepared to make his choice of studies later an intelligent one. Only a few electives may safely be allowed in the sophomore year, but in the last two years of the college course they may be freely introduced. In this elective system, however, the student should not be allowed to dissipate his energies in too many directions. Four electives at most should be allowed him.

While this should be firmly adhered to in the course leading to the B.A. degree, other courses should be encouraged, and corresponding degrees awarded on their successful completion. Each of these degrees should be plainly designated by its title, so as not to be mistaken for the B.A. degree.

Our students in colleges are not increasing in proportion to the population. One reason is that they enter college too late, and it is only at the age of twenty-six or twenty-eight that they are able to support themselves by their profession. This is longer than most boys can wait, and longer than most parents can afford to have them wait: so they are dispensing with the college course. The remedy for this is to improve the work of the schools so that a boy can enter college at sixteen, and enter on his profession at twenty-two or twenty-three years of age. A healthy boy of fair ability ought to be able to accomplish this without difficulty.

Dr. McCosh's argument and practical sugges

tions were most favorably received by the members of the convocation.

On Thursday morning, July 8, the convocation held its closing session. Professor Hewett of Cornell read a paper on the relations of the colleges and academies, in which he pointed out the fact that the systems of Germany, Massachusetts, and Michigan, were superior to those of New York as far as the relations between preparatory schools and colleges are concerned. He urged that the colleges should unite in setting a standard which the high schools and academies would have to observe or else give way to private schools. Inspection of preparatory schools by competent officers was also recommended.

On the conclusion of the discussion of Professor Hewett's paper, Chancellor Sims of Syracuse university took the chair, and opened the conference of college presidents in the state of New York on the question of classical requirements for the degree of B.A. He was followed by President Dodge of Madison university, Warden Fairbairn of St. Stephen's college, and Brother Conway of Canisius college. Every speaker took the ground that the reputation of the B.A. degree must be preserved, and that Greek and Latin must be rigidly insisted on as requisite for its attainment.

The last business of the convocation was to discuss briefly medical education, the sentiment being that a physician should be examined for his license to practise by a board not composed of his instructors. At one P.M. Chancellor Pierson declared the convocation adjourned sine die.

Among the other papers of interest were the following: Rev. Brother Noah, Tact in teaching; J. A. Lintner, The present state of entomological science in the United States; President Hyde of Bowdoin, The relation of higher education to religion; Professor Wilson of Cornell, The elements of knowledge: Principal E. H. Cook of Potsdam, Systematic habit in education.

THE INDIAN SURVEY REPORT.

THE general report on the operations of the survey of India for the year 1884-85, which has been received from India a month earlier than usual, contains the record of work done by one of the busiest departments of the government of that country, the following abstract of which we find in The Athenaeum. The officers of the department are constantly engaged in surveys in all parts of the peninsula, and every year a greater area is added to the map as either triangulated or topographically surveyed. Our attention may be most profitably directed to the geographical discoveries chronicled in the present report, although they do not include any thing so remarkable as the journey of A. K. in the report of two years ago.

Prominent among the additions to our geographical knowledge is the survey made by the officers of the Afghan commission of the country between Quetta and Kuhsan on the Perso-Afghan frontier. This independent traverse was for a distance of 767 linear miles without a break. The Helmund valley was mapped up to the Hamun; and Major Holdich, with his assistants Captains Gore and Talbot, has plane-tabled an extent of 15,000 square miles in this part of Afghanistan. But the most distinct achievements of the year were attained on the northern and eastern frontiers of India. Colonel Woodthorpe's trip across the Patkai range to the villages of the friendly Bor Kamptis, in the valley of the western branch of the Irrawaddy, was a perilous but successful attempt to carry one stage further the examination of the country beyond the north-east frontier. The history of this tour is given by Major C. R. Macgregor in the appendix, which consists of the narratives on which Colonel De Prée has based his general report. The country through which the expedition had to pass en route to the Kampti villages was the scene of many Singpho depredations; and more than one place was indicated by the guide as having witnessed the massacre of helpless Kampti traders, and fear of the Singphos was generally assigned as the cause of the absence of trade between the Brahmaputra and Irrawaddy. At Langnu, the first Kampti village, the party, after some not unnatural hesitation considering it was a surprise visit, was favorably received, and made the acquaintance of representatives of several new tribes, such as the Marus, who are extremely poor and live on roots in some hills south of the Namkiu valley, and the Kunnungs, described as a gentle and pleasant-looking people with melodious voices. In the country of the latter, silver-mines exist, which supply the whole of this region with coin and ornaments. Just as the Singphos raid on the Kamptis, a people called the Singlengs plunder the Kunnungs, and sell those they capture as slaves to the Tibetans. At Langdao the party was obstructed; but the people were pacified by fair words and the present of some rupees to propitiate their 'Nats.' Near this village Colonel Woodthorpe crossed the Irrawaddy or Namkiu, which at this point is only eighty-five yards broad and not deep. China is known as Khé Moung, and the tribes only resort there a journey of a month and eight days - for the purpose of buying opium; and that not so often as formerly, because Assam opium is found to be better and more easily procurable. The explorers received a polite message from Lukun, the head

chief of the Kamptis, to visit him in his capital of Padao. The chief is described as 'a fine-looking shrewd old fellow,' who originally came from Bhamo, and whose assistance will prove of great utility in exploring the country beyond his territory in the direction of the silver-mines. The return journey across the Patkai range was attended with great difficulty and peril, as the rivers were flooded, and supplies were almost exhausted. In fact, when the expedition joined a party sent out to relieve them, they were on the verge of starvation. Major Macgregor expresses the opinion that the idea of a trade-route to China from Assam is any thing but a visionary one; and the more knowledge we acquire about the tribes of this region, the more reasonable does it appear that there may, after all, be a short route between Assam and the province of Szchuen.

Captain Wahab's narrative of the Baluchistan operations is chiefly interesting for its reference to the passes in that country between the fertile planes of Kachhi and Khelat proper. The Gazak pass, which leads direct to the Khan's capital, will be surveyed later on; but farther north the Vehova pass has been examined, with the result that it has been found a good road, passable for laden camels, and with good water, grass, and fuel. The writer calls attention to the great change that has taken place in the security of the district through which the Pishin railway is now being constructed. A few years ago this was one of the most lawless tracts on the frontier : now camps of coolies are scattered along the whole line quite unguarded, and apparently as secure as if they were in India.

Colonel Tanner's account of the Himalayan survey is very interesting reading; and his forced march across the Lipu Lek pass brought him into direct contact with a Tibetan Jongpen or governor, who used plain language regarding the attempts of the English to enter his country. He said, "We are not angry at your coming this once, but we never wish to see you again. Our government don't allow the English in Tibet, but you one and all try to push your way past our frontier posts." If this expresses the Tibetan view of the subject, it is to be feared that Mr. Colman Macaulay has not much chance of succeeding in his mission. Colonel Tanner gives a graphic description of the village of Budi - the most delightful place he had seen in the Himalayas and of the terrors of the Nirpania-kidanda, or waterless spur, which occurs between the Lipu Lek pass and Kumaon. The most important piece of work in this direction was accomplished by a surveyor named R. N., under Colonel Tan