colonies in the home market, partly because of the local demand for their woods, and partly because the cost of carriage would be too great.

Professor Macoum (Canada) said that the reason the English merchant knew so few of the Canadian timbers was the natural indisposition existing in both countries to take a new departure from old habits. The Douglas fir of Canada was fully equal to the white-pine now employed, and when the supplies of the latter were exhausted, the former would of necessity take its place. The Douglas fir grew in vast quantities, attained a great height, and tapered very gradually. In their black-ash, too, the Canadians possessed a species of timber which would some day be very widely employed, for it had all the qualities of the now favorite white-ash, and its supply was unlimited. The Douglas fir could be supplied in England at £5 a load, and the black-ash at the same price as elm or white-pine.

Mr. E. A. Cooper (the Cape) said that the umzumbit of that colony was, from its remarkable hardness and durability, a very desirable wood, offering more resistance to wear and tear than lignum vitae itself, and being impervious to the attacks of the teredos. The Cape yellow-wood could be supplied as cheaply as any, the price being about £6 10s. a load. The stink-wood, however, which was very useful for furniture, could not find a market here, owing to the high prices it commanded in the colony; namely, 3s. to 4s. a cube.

Mr. Alfred Dent (British North Borneo) said that the Billian of that country offered great attractions to the English merchant. It grew in enormous quantities, was very easy of access, and exceedingly hard and durable. Companies were wanted to undertake the supply of the wood in large quantities, at present an impossibility. As to the cost of the wood, he remarked that one firm already was prepared to supply it alongsideship at £3 10s. per ton, a price which freightage, etc., would probably increase by about fifty per cent. But competition would, no doubt, reduce these charges considerably.

THE PEOPLE ON THE KONGO. WALCKE, on his return from five years on the Kongo, has given some interesting details in regard to the people of its banks. Those of the lower river have been brutalized by the importation of liquor, and form a strong contrast with the people of the interior, who have so far escaped such demoralization. On the upper river the Bassunde are the first people who

dress their hair. It is noted that those tribes who neglect their hair are deficient in physical and moral qualities. With the Bassunde it takes several hours to perform the toilet. They are polygamous, the wives living in pairs in little huts grouped around the principal house, where the head of the family resides. Marriage is simply a matter of bargain and sale. The number of wives in some sort gauges the importance of the husband. They have no ceremony in connection with marriage or birth, but a funeral is the occasion of much display. It is fortunate for the traders that these people, who wear hardly any thing but a breechclout in life, when dead consume immense quantities of cloth. A man who has not worn twenty yards of cloth in his whole life will be rolled in four hundred yards to be buried.

When a death occurs, the body is energetically washed, half the village joining in the work with loud cries and howls, and distribution of rum. The body is put in a sitting posture, and painted red. The chief depressions are then stuffed out with dead leaves, and the whole is rolled with cloth into a cylindrical bale. The process goes on sometimes for three months, as the body is not put under ground until all the dead man's estate is exhausted in the purchase of material. Meanwhile it is placed in a specially constructed hut. The bigger the bale, the greater the dead man's credit; so that, in case of a chief, the people of the village will sometimes contribute to enlarge his wrappings. Finally the bale is wrapped in a particularly fine piece reserved for the purpose, and is carried in triumph about the village, and then buried with salvos of musketry, which, if the powder holds out, are repeated nightly over the grave for some time. As usual among the negroes, the death is always ascribed to sorcery, any one suspected being obliged to undergo the ordeal of drinking a certain preparation. If within a certain time the suspect is overcome by the effects of the draught, he is put to death as a murderer. The cult of the people is pure fetichism: they have a fetich for each sort of danger to which they may be by chance exposed, — one for serpents, one for crocodiles, etc. A native, being told that he must be happy at being safe from crocodiles, replied,Not at all: the fetich loses its power when brought near water.' They appear to serve merely as a sort of reminder what dangers are to be avoided.

They have certain medicaments which are of real efficacy, as against fevers, but will not reveal their nature for the rest, diseases are treated by conjuration. Circumcision and excision of the clitoris are practised, and admit the patient to the privileges of maturity, as one of the tribe. They

are performed with a good deal of ceremony. If by any chance either operation is not performed, the individual could not obtain a partner in marriage, and would be avoided as uncanny. Besides individual fetiches, there are those which belong to the village. If by any means a European is robbed, he goes to the chief and gets him to beat or abuse the village fetich, which can usually be accomplished by diplomacy. The fetich is accordingly ceremoniously beaten: and the culprit, fearing retribution, soon finds means to return the spoil, and thus avert the wrath of the fetich, which might otherwise be visited on himself. They have also an ill-defined belief in some power of which the fetiches are merely the servants. This is called zambic;' but is supposed to be above any personal interest in human affairs.

The trade in ivory is the principal business, and is carried on chiefly by the Bateke as intermediaries between the interior and river tribes. The Batekes are not agriculturalists, but the division of labor between the sexes is more even than between those of the other peoples. Another race is found along the banks, who cultivate the soil, and furnish the Bateke with provisions in trade. These are the Bonbundos. Their habits are much like the other tribes. The Buenses are especially navigators, and make long canoe voyages in search of ivory. The Bangalas are cannibals, and wear ornaments of human phalanges. Their victims are always prisoners of war, for whom they go on hunting expeditions. From Bengala to Buensé, the most interior point reached by the traders, the most numerous tribe is the Basuco. Most of the tribes mentioned wear more or less clothing, at least a waistclout; but among the Basucos only the men wear any thing. They have the practice of human sacrifices. A certain number of slaves are designated to be put to death at the obsequies of any chief. The idea seems to be that their fidelity for life is thus insured, since their own life depends on that of the master.

The traders do their best, and to some extent have succeeded in ameliorating these customs. Progress is pacific, and force never resorted to. The friendship of the blacks is necessary for the maintenance of their business. The negro is lazy and childish; but, treated with fairness, he does the work required of him, and which would be impossible for whites to perform in that climate. Two hundred and eighty-four special agreements have been made with different chiefs, some of whom control only twenty or thirty men. The process is tedious, but each one gained over is one friend more for the trader, and they cannot be dispensed with.

EVOLUTION VERSUS INVOLUTION.

THE growing acceptance of the theory of evolution has led in the last few years to the publication of a large number of books upon the subject, of a more or less popular nature. These are not, as a rule, scientific arguments, for science no longer considers it worth while to discuss a question now so universally accepted. From various stand-points the subject is treated. Now we find

a review of its scientific aspects, now of its relation to theology, and now of its metaphysical content. The present book has three objects: it is "a popular exposition of the doctrines of true evolution, a refutation of the theories of Herbert Spencer, and a vindication of theism." In pursuance of the first object, the author gives us an historical review of the question from the time of the Greek philosophers, and then very cursorily reviews the application of the general theory to the development of worlds, of life, of the organic kingdoms, of mind and soul, and of society in its various phases. In this brief summary the evolution theory is accepted in its fullest extent as applying universally. The review is a very hurried one, however, only touching upon a few of the salient points, and recognizing no difficulties in the way of the onward tendency of thought. It would, indeed, hardly give one who was not already acquainted with the subject a very comprehensive idea of the theory of evolution, or the reasons for accepting it. In some parts it is somewhat strained; as, for instance, where a detailed comparison is drawn between the vertebrates, the mollusks and annulosa, the coelenterata, the sponges and protozoa, on the one hand, and the exogens, the endogens, the acrogens, and the fungi and lichens, on the other.

This part of the book, however, though taking up the most space, is secondary to the other two objects running through the whole; viz., the vindication of theism, and the refutation of Spencer. As a vindication of theism, the book is an illustration of the growing conception that evolution is not at all out of harmony with theism. The question of evolution is one which deals entirely with secondary causes, and even Spencer's theory does not attempt to fathom the first cause; while theism deals primarily with first cause.

It

is fortunate for true science and true theism that this is becoming so fully recognized, — for science, because it removes the feeling of hostility which has been accustomed to be raised in the minds of most people by the simple word 'evolution ;' for theism, because it no longer makes it necessary to try to disprove this growing theory of science.

Evolution versus involution. By A. Z. RRED. New York, Pott, 1885. 8°.

That there is no contradiction between theism and evolution our author clearly shows. But he goes even further than this, and claims to prove that evolution is radically inconsistent with atheism. He thinks that the two thoughts, when carried to legitimate extremes, lead to suicidal contradictions; leading, in fact, to the extremes of Comptism, and its necessary worship of human nature as the loftiest thing in existence. Now, whatever may be said of this discussion, it is plain that the reader's judgment of this part of the work will depend largely upon his willingness to accept the conclusion. If he reads with a predisposition against the conclusion, the whole argument will be regarded with the same indifference as are all other arguments which try to prove the existence of God. But if he reads, accepting the conclusion, and wishing to find a justification for a belief in theism, he will be abundantly satisfied; for the arguments are keen and forcible, and plainly show that theism is exalted by the conceptions of evolution.

In his attempt to refute Spencer, our author has not been quite so successful. To refute such a system of philosophy as that of Spencer is as difficult as to demonstrate it. It may be easy to criticise Spencer, to show his false deductions and an amount of inconsistency in his writings. This our author has succeeded in doing well enough. But to refute his philosophy is a different matter. An examination of this criticism shows that it is chiefly upon Spencer's ideas of primal cause, and therefore upon his conception of the significance of law, and not at all upon his theory as to the development of the visible universe. Our author first shows that Spencer's philosophy is one of involution, and not evolution, a fact which Spencer himself recognized. Our author gives a definition of evolution which completely reverses that of Spencer. He makes it a passage from the complex to the simple, rather than from the simple to the complex. What he means by this is not that nature has not seemed to grow more complex, but that this growth has been only the unfolding of forces and tendencies which have existed from the beginning. Evolution is therefore a revealing of that which is hidden, and is thus really a simplification. An egg is more complex than the adult, since, though seemingly simple, it contains in a small space, in addition to that which we can see, forces and tendencies which regulate the growth of the adult. Its development is simply the unfolding of this potentiality. And so the original nebula was really infinitely complex, since it contained in its laws and tendencies the possibility of the system which has arisen from it. This, our author claims, is in direct contradiction

to Spencer's philosophy of a passage from the simple to the complex, and this philosophy is therefore false at its foundation. It is a restatement of the old saying that evolution cannot exceed involution. Now, in reality, our author and Spencer do not disagree so much as at first seems. Spencer has only attempted to explain the visible universe by his philosophy, recognizing his inability to explain or comprehend law. In the visible universe there has undoubtedly been an increase in complexity. Spencer would not for an instant deny that the original nebula contained in its laws and tendencies the potential system. The difference between our author and Spencer is thus only in their metaphysical conception of the significance of these laws and their relation to the first cause which lies beneath them. It is the difference between theism and agnosticism again. Spencer regards the universe as without design: our author regards the working of law as the unfolding of a plan. Spencer looks upon the seeming design in nature as resulting from the natural working of law, without attempting to go beneath this statement: our author goes a step further, and puts the plan in the nature of the laws themselves. These two positions are not necessarily contradictory, though when regarded in certain lights they may be so.

This discussion of Mr. Rred's is therefore valuable as an exposition of the meaning of theistic evolution. It shows that theistic evolution is consistent with all the facts of science, and that the law of evolution, when viewed from the theistic stand-point, contains a significance which is utterly wanting to it when regarded from the stand-point of atheism. But as a refutation of Spencer it is hardly a success; for it has only shown that the conception of Spencer's Unknowable as an intelligent personality is preferable to the agnostic position of Spencer.

TWO SCHOOL-BOOKS ON GEOLOGY.

THERE can hardly be found a greater contrast in the methods of treatment of a subject than is presented by a comparison of the school-books on geology lately prepared by Professors Geikie and Winchell. The authors seem to have had scholars of about the same high-school age in mind. Their objects are similar, - for one makes .an appeal to the powers of observation,' and the other wishes 'to foster a habit of observation,' - and yet how different are their paths to this common end! Professor Winchell begins, after advising teachers Class book of geology. By ARCHIBALD GEIKIE. London, Macmillan, 1986, 8.

Geological studies; or. Elements of geology. By ALEXANDER WINCHELL. Chicago, Griggs, 1886. 8°.

to adhere scrupulously to the method of the book,' with so complex and difficult a formation as the drift, collects specimens from it, tells a little about chemistry, more about minerals and rocks, describes eruptive rocks before considering eruptions, briefly discusses sedimentation and erosion, describes geological maps and sections, and so on through the first part of his book, the outcome of which may very likely be, as he suggests, "a somewhat chaotic and undigested mass of facts and doctrines, buried in a considerable volume of verbiage." Then follows part ii., attempting to give as a complement to the first a methodical re-presentation of what has already been encountered, but in extremely condensed form. So fundamental a matter as cycles of sedimentation are quickly passed over, with very brief illustration; and even the lesson of unconformability is given little emphasis, although more than four pages are devoted to the recent theories of ancient tides and tidal action. Altogether too much is attempted under the heading of formational geology, considering the small space allowed it: much of this might be omitted to the advantage of the rest, as the book is not intended for a manual. But the greatest difficulty seems to be that the book tries to take the place of the teacher. For example: on p. 128 we read, “You ought to take a great deal of exercise on the geological map, and especially in the construction of sections, no matter if it requires two or three days to finish one study." Any teacher whose instruction needs to be supplemented by such dictation as this can hardly be expected to have ability enough to use and explain the rest of the book properly; and certainly no teacher of independence and originality can wish to have questions of method so minutely defined for him by some one else. In the hands of the author, with the inspiration of his enthusiasm and knowledge before the class, such instructions may serve a purpose; but inspiration in teaching is seldom transmitted through the medium of printer's ink. The plan of Professor Geikie's book is preferable, because, while it gives a simple, attractive presentation of facts, arranged in a very natural order, it leaves the teacher free, if he desire to arrange a course for himself, to plan his own method on minor points, and gain inspiration with originality; or, on the other hand, it provides chapters that can be read with entertainment and used as bases for set recitations, if the teacher is satisfied, or is obliged merely to follow a book. The physical chapters run about as follows: action of atmosphere and water, effects of lakes and springs, ice and the sea, fossils, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Then come minerals and rocks; rock-structures, original and secondary; and, finally, the historical

The pro

view, occupying a third of the book. portion is somewhat less in Professor Winchell's book: it might be in both still further reduced to the advantage of the class of students addressed, for the first view of historical geology is too much encumbered with meaningless fact to develop thought or to train the understanding. Instead of reviewing in condensed form the whole column from archaean to present, the student would learn more from the deliberate description, illustration, and discussion of a small part of it, which might then serve as a key to the understanding of the rest in later years of study.

The illustrations are, as a rule, better in the English than in the American book, though the latter are good, on the whole. The only bad picture that has Professor Geikie's tacit approval is his fig. 10, that tries to represent torrent-cut gullies on a mountain-side: it has the made-toorder' look. The vertical exaggeration allowed in the sections is the most serious defect in the illustration of Professor Winchell's book: it is true that these are generally copied from venerable state reports, and have authoritative names to justify their use, but they are bad, for all that. No proper idea of the geological structure of Tennessee can be gained from the section on p. 93; and the original section across Michigan, p. 126, might well be labored over to bring it somewhat nearer the true scale, no matter if it required two or three days to finish it.

THE annual report of the commissioner of pensions for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1886, shows the vast extent of our pension system. At the close of the year there were on the rolls 365,783 pensioners, of whom 265,854 are classified as army invalids; 80,162 as army widows, minor children, and dependent relatives; 2,953 as navy invalids; 1,878 as navy widows, minor children, and dependent relatives; 1,539 as survivors of the war of 1812; and 13,397 as widows of those who served in that war. 1,406 survivors of the war of 1812. and 3,815 widows of soldiers of that war, died during the year. 40,857 new pensioners were added to the roll during the year, and 2,229 whose pensions had been dropped were re-instated. As 22,089 were dropped for various causes, the net increase was 20,658. The average annual value of each pension is $122.23, and the aggregate annual value amounts to $44,708,041.51. amount paid during the year, including the arrearages, was $63,797,831.61. In all but 118 of the 2,647 counties in the United States, pensions are being paid, and 1,691 pensions are paid in 35 foreign countries. Verily, republics are not always ungrateful.

The

FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 19, 1886.

COMMENT AND CRITICISM.

OUR RECENT CELEBRATION of the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the founding of Harvard college seemed to refer us back to the dim past; but that past seems very recent when we read of the celebration in England of the eight hundredth anniversary of the completion of Domesday book. The celebration took the form of a series of meetings for the inspection of manuscripts and literary productions, and for the reading of papers more or less connected with matters affecting the contents of Domesday book. A great attraction was the exhibition of the volumes themselves that compose the Domesday book. The Record office kindly aided by all means in its power the committee having the celebration in charge, and gathered together in one room a vast number of manuscripts and relics. Among these was a document concerning the number of hides in different districts in England, the date of which, as originally written, is placed in the eighth century. Three Anglo-Saxon manuscripts of the eleventh century were exhibited, which showed the method of ploughing. The papers read discussed the history and fortunes of Domesday book as a volume, and its employment as evidence in the courts. There were also some statistical tables read concerning the contents of the book. It is believed that the Royal historical society will issue a full bibliography of Domesday book, including not only printed portions of the texts and separate papers and essays, but also notices of matter referred to by the record.

BY THE DEATH of M. Paul Bert, which was announced on Friday last, France loses one of her most radical and aggressive statesmen, as well as one of her foremost educators and ablest scientific investigators. However much we may differ from some or all of M. Bert's doctrines, we cannot but admire his power, his vigor, and his enthusiasm. Born in 1833, he received a broad and thorough education, becoming a doctor of medicine in 1863, a doctor of science in 1866, and a licentiate in law about the same time.

No. 198.-1886.

He was

for a time assistant to Claude Bernard, and in 1867 was called to the chair of physiology at Bordeaux. In 1869 he was called to the Sorbonne, and became professor of physiology there. After Napoleon's downfall he entered politics, and, after holding several departmental offices, entered the chamber of deputies in 1874 as a representative for Yonne, his native department. He immediately took a prominent part in the debates, and during the discussion of the Ferry law his voice was raised often and vigorously in behalf of lay instruction, compulsory education laws, and the abolition of all school fees. M. Bert was a great friend and admirer of Gambetta, and when that statesman became premier, in 1881, M. Bert was made minister of public instruction in his cabinet. M. Bert's avowed atheism and vigorous radicalism made him many enemies, and he was in no small degree contributory to the speedy downfall of the Gambetta ministry. M. Bert's best-known writings are 'De la greffe animale' (1863), De la vitalité des tissus animaux' (1866), 'Revue des travaux d'anatomie et de physiologie publies en France pendant l'année 1864' (1864), Notes d'anatomie et de physiologie comparée' (2 vols., 1867-70), Recherches de physiologie experimentale' (1877), -crowned by the French academy, and La morale des Jésuites' (1880). At the time of his death M. Bert was governor-general of Tonquin, and minister to Anam, and much was expected from his able and vigorous administration of the interests of France in the orient.

MR. JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL'S great oration at the Harvard celebration calls for notice more special than that which we were able to give last week. Those who had the privilege of hearing the orator report that he spoke with wonderful grace and elegance for almost two hours, holding his audience spell-bound. The oration is in itself a justification of a classical and literary education, and a living argument for a culture loftier and deeper than that which strictly utilitarian theories would provide. Mr. Lowell perhaps overstates himself, but there is more than a kernel of truth in his definition of a university as "a place where nothing useful is taught; but a university is possible only where a man may get his livelihood