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has at present only seven members on the association's rolls, three of them the sole survivors of the twenty-five. Was it for missionary service that Buffalo called the association to its open doors? Does Buffalo look upon itself as in partibus infidelium?

THE TRANSCASPIAN RAILWAY.

THE Transcaspian railway was opened for traffic on the 14th of July as far as Merv. The operations must already be far advanced on the MervBokhara-Samarcand branches, for the names of railway stations, the distances, and other details over the whole length of the railway, from the Caspian to the Turkestan frontier, are already known. The following are fresh particulars of this important central Asian strategical railway:

There are altogether 63 stations from Michailovsk, on the bay of that name on the Caspian, right through the deserts and oases of the Transcaspian, across the Amu Darya and Bokhara to Samarcand. These do not include the new branch of 25 versts, made from Michailovsk along the Caspian coast to Ousun Ada, in order to have deep water for the connecting sea service, and to avoid the reshipment formerly necessary between Krasnovodsk and Michailovsk. The distances between these stations vary from 15 to 33 versts, being in most cases from 22 to 25 versts.

The whole distance of the line when completed as far as Samarcand will be 1,335 versts. The distances in Central Asia have become so exaggerated in most minds that few persons would imagine that they might travel by this new railway right through the Transcaspian Steppes, over the Oxus, and from one side of Bokhara to the other, coming out at Samarcand, in something like a day and a half, or less.

The first, or western, portion of the railway runs through a desert, crossing now and then an oasis, then traverses the cultivated territory of Bokhara, and ends at Samarcand in Russian Turkestan. The desert stretches along the line 148 versts between the sea-coast and Kazandjik, and 69 versts from the latter station to Kizil Arvat. The Akhal Tekee oasis extends as far as Gheours, 237 versts. The furthest point south, Doujak, is distant from the sea 581 versts, from Askabad 159 versts, Merv 167 versts, and Samarcand 754 versts. The railway traverses 300 versts of Bokharan territory. Were the line made from Merv over Burdalisk and Korti, instead of Charjui, 100 versts would be saved, and the distance between Michailovsk and Samarcand would be only 1,200 versts, or 800 miles, instead of 890 miles; but the Bokharan government, for some reason

or other, did not consider that this shorter route would so well serve the interests of their country.

The principal stations are those of Askabad and Samarcand. Besides post and telegraph offices, lodging houses have been already partly built at several stations for travellers, though nothing in the way of luxury will be provided, as may be imagined. According to the time-table, the trains will run 20 versts an hour. In the event of war, the number of trains departing may be increased to 12 per day.

The railway at present is only a single line. Although many of the stations are situated in waterless deserts, they are all furnished with water in one way or another. At Michailovsk there is Nöbel's machinery for converting the sea water into fresh water, and at several stations large cisterns are to be regularly supplied, either through pipe lines or by water trains. Artesian wells have also been dug, and good water has been found between Michailovsk and Molla Kary, and at other points. Not far from Bala Isshem, the railway also has its own petroleum sources, connected by a branch line.

THE RECENT ERUPTION IN NEW ZEALAND.

A STEAMER which recently arrived at San Francisco from Australia brings further details of the great volcanic disturbances in New Zealand. Heavy earthquakes were still felt in the Tarawera and Sulphur Springs districts, and severe shocks continued in the Rotoli district. A relief party that was sent out reported that Lake Tarawera had fallen considerably. The oil bath at Whakarewarewa was throwing up stones and mud to the height of twenty feet, and the great boiling lagoon of Papatangi would suddenly rise as much as two feet, and then as quickly fall. A similar phenomenon was observed at the Kuirrau caldron, which would rise two feet in half an hour, and then as quickly return to its normal level. Mr. Dinsey, the telegraph officer in charge of the Rotonea station, near where the eruptions and earthquakes were heaviest, reported on June 25 that volcano No. 1 was dead, and that Nos. 2 and 3 were steaming. No. 4 was still throwing up mud. Lake Rotomahana was comparatively quiet, with only one geyser in the centre playing. The Pink Terrace geysers were still blowing up clouds of steam, but were less active than they had been. The immense crevasse created between Tarawera and White Terrace continued to steam, and the cone on top of Tarawera Mountain was throwing out volumes of black smoke and steam. The New Zealand Herald says: "On Galatea Plains the

volcanic showers of mud at times took very eccentric courses, overleaping one section of land and then striking another further on, in the same line. Dr. Hector, who is making a scientific examination of the volcanic districts, said he expected that the volcanic cone which was thrown up in Lake Rotomahana during the disturbances had already on July 1 attained a height of six hundred feet, and was daily adding to its stature. He has named it Mount Hazard, after the gentleman of that name who lost his life on the first night of the great eruption. A chemical examination of the volcanic ashes shows that they are mostly composed of fine basaltic soil. Every human being has abandoned the entire portion of country situated within the limits of the volcanic system. Photographers were busily engaged taking views of the region."

GAS SUPPLY.

NUMBERS two and three of the publications of the American economic association are covered by a monograph, entitled "The relation of the modern municipality to the gas supply," prepared by Edmund J. James, Ph.D. The pamphlet contains a thoroughgoing investigation of the various systems of gas supply, and for that reason should commend itself to all interested in municipal administration and economic phenomena. The author, as is well known to readers of Science, is disposed to widen the sphere of state activity, basing his reasoning on philosophic conceptions. The present discussion, however, is not limited to a scholastic treatment, but assumes an intensely practical form. It is viewed from two standpoints that of the individual, who is interested in obtaining a good quality of gas at a low price; and that of the municipality, which is interested in acquiring a revenue by legitimate economic methods. On both these points, Dr. James supplies abundant data. He shows how many European, and especially English, cities have been able to save large sums for the taxpayers by managing gas trusts on a business basis; while on the other hand, "the general opinion in England seems to be that the gas furnished by the public companies is better than that made by private companies." The experience of city upon city is adduced to support the belief that a transfer of ownership from private parties to municipal authorities would be of immense benefit. In the United States, there are at least three city corporations, Philadelphia, Richmond, and Wheeling, which undertake the manufacture and sale of gas. In each of these the results, upon the whole, have been favorable. The monograph is enriched by statistical information which makes it exceedingly

serviceable; and the thoroughness of the work augurs well for the series of publications which the Economic association has undertaken.

LONDON LETTER.

SEVERAL weeks ago, attention was drawn in this correspondence to a remarkable outbreak of scarlatina in a London district, in which the hypothesis that the disease had spread from the milk drawn from one particular farm, seemed to be suggested and supported by the facts of the case. The proof, then wanting, that the disease of the animals could really produce scarlatina in man, has now been supplied by the investigations of Dr. Klein (conducted mainly at the 'Brown institution'), whose report has just been issued by the local government board. Four calves were inoculated with the matter from sores on the udders of the diseased cows, and similar sores were produced in them. Dr. Klein states that this disease, thus artificially produced in the calf, 'bears a close resemblance to human scarlatina,' and he specially quotes the appearances found in the kidney of the animal as indicative of the scarlatina attack. It is remarkable, however, that the milk of the affected cows is harmless, and does not contain, per se, the germs of the disease, but that it is contaminated after it has passed from the udder of the cow. Dr. Klein says that the fingers of the milker must of necessity bring down into the milk diseased particles from the ulcerations on the teats of the animal, and he points out that in the milk the disease germs find a good medium in which to multiply.'

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As the last important act of his present official existence, Mr. Mundella, the president of the board of trade, has just announced that a 'Fishery department' is to be forthwith created, with an assistant secretary of state at its head. Mr. Berrington, who is to be the chief inspector, will be recognized as the right man in the right place, since he has already won his spurs as the successor in that post of Professor Huxley. The new department promises to be strong in practical knowledge.

The latest large engineering scheme which has been broached is that for a tunnel between Scotland and Ireland, at two points (Port Patrick and Donaghadee) where the distance from land to land does not exceed twenty miles. A shaft is to be sunk at once to test the strata. The cost of the tunnel has been estimated by competent authorities at $25,000,000, and that of the land approaches on either side, $5,000,000 more. The distance from Moville, in Lough Foyle (where the Allan line steamers now call), to London will be

four hundred and fifty miles, or eleven hours' rail. No American lines would land mails and passengers at Queenstown, when they could be delivered by the new route much earlier in Scotland, Lancashire, and London.

It is on many accounts to be regretted that the necessary capital for the Manchester ship-canal has not been subscribed within the time-limit allowed by the act of parliament authorizing its construction. Another opportunity will be afforded next year. It is to be 35 miles long, and a contract for its construction had been taken for $28,750,000. The depth is to be 26 feet, and the bottom width 120 feet. There will therefore be ample room for the largest ocean steamers to pass each other, and such delays as on the Suez canal cannot take place. The 60 feet difference of level between the two ends will be surmounted by four sets of locks. It is estimated that the labor of 20,000 men will be required for four years to complete it.

Science will be represented in the new house of commons by Sir John Lubbock, Sir Henry Roscoe, Mr. Nevil Story Maskelyne, and Sir Lyon Playfair, who, now that he is released from the cares of office by the resignation of the Gladstone ministry, is intending to make his usual autumnal visit to the United States with Lady Playfair.

The following telegram from Paris on electrical transmission of force, appeared in the Times of July 26:

"During the last ten years M. Marcel Deprez has been engaged in experiments connected with the transmission of force by means of electricity. The Rothschilds some time since provided him with an unlimited credit to prosecute his researches at Creil, under the inspection of a commission of thirty-eight men of science. On Friday the commission met to hear a report on the results at present obtained, drawn up at their request by M. Maurice Lévy. This report was unanimously approved. It appears from it that we can now, with only one generator and only one receptor, transport to a distance of about 35 miles a force capable of being used for industrial purposes of 52-horse power, with a yield of 45 per cent, without exceeding a current of 10 ampères. When the amount of force absorbed by the apparatus used to facilitate the recent experiment, but not required in the applications to industrial purposes, is added, the yield will be nearly 50 per

cent.

"The commission certifies that the machines now work regularly and continuously. The maximum electro-motive force is 6,290 volts. Before the construction of the Marcel Deprez apparatus the maximum force did not exceed 2,000 volts.

The report states that this high tension does not give rise to any danger, and that no accident has occurred during the past six months. The commission is of opinion that the transmitting wire may be left uncovered on poles, provided it be placed beyond the reach of the hand. It estimates at nearly £5,000 the probable cost of the transmission of 50-horse power round a circular line of about 70 miles. This price would, however, be much diminished if the machines were frequently constructed.

"The commission, in the name of science and industry, warmly congratulated M. Deprez on the admirable results which he had obtained, and expressed thanks to the Rothschilds for the generous aid extended to the undertaking.”

In connection with this, attention may well be drawn to an admirable little book on this whole subject of the electrical transmission and distribution of power, just published, from the pen of Mr. Gisbert Kapp, in Whitaker's 'specialist' series. It contains a clear and concise summary of principles, and a detailed account of what has actually been accomplished.

The forest fires which have been desolating an important section of Algeria seem at last to have burnt out. During the Roman occupation, Tunis probably contained twenty millions of people; now the most favorable estimates do not place the population at more than one million and a half. At one time the regions at present so barren were wealthy with crops, as shown, for example, by the frequent ruins of Roman oil mills. In those days the country was covered with luxuriant forests. In Bruce's day, one hundred and twenty years ago, allusion is made to forests where now not a single tree is visible. Yet the soil is still there, only waiting to be stirred into life by rain. Every country off which timber has been cut or burnt without discretion is feeling more or less the same inconvenience. Let the United States and Canada take warning!

The institute of naval architects is now holding its summer session at Liverpool, under the presidency of the Earl of Ravensworth. Chief-engineer Parker, surveyor to Lloyds, read a paper on the progress and development of marine engineering, in which he illustrated by tables and diagrams the improvements effected during the past few years. Mr. William John, the manager of the Barrow ship-building company, then read a paper upon The construction of Atlantic passenger steamers,' in which he pointed out that none of the English transatlantic liners had yet been fitted with the latest modern improvements for economy of fuel or quick combustion, such as triple-expansion engines or forced draught, which some of the

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- At the Buffalo meeting of the American association it is proposed to devote especial attention to the study and discussion of the interesting phenomena of the Niagara Falls and the gorge below. On Friday, August 20, one or more preliminary papers of an expository and suggestive nature will be given, intended to prepare the way for a short field-study of the falls and the gorge, which will occupy Saturday. Monday forenoon will be devoted to the discussion of the gorge and the problems to which it gives rise. A new survey of the falls has been arranged for, so that a considerable addition to the data for the computation of the rate of recession will be at command, and it is expected that new observations in other important lines bearing upon the chronology of

the gorge will be presented, and will throw fresh light upon the history of the formation and recession of the falls and upon the utility or untrustworthiness of the gorge as a geological meassure of time.

Among the few local scientific societies of the United States, the Wyoming (Penn.) historical and geological society is especially to be commended for its activity. The second volume of its Proceedings, just published, contains, among other historical papers, several of interest on the local geology of the Wyoming valley. It would seem that the scope of the society might very profitably be widened so as to include other fields of scientific research in natural history.

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-The Report of the life-saving service for 1885' presents not a few facts of interest deserving attention. One can only rightly appreciate the great importance that this branch of the public service has attained by the examination of the results as given for the past year in this report. The entire number of stations in operation was 203, of which 157 are on the Atlantic coast, 38 on the lakes, and seven on the Pacific coast, with one on the Ohio River at Louisville, Ky. The entire expense for the support of these stations during the year was less than $800,000, not one-fourth as much as the value of the actual property saved. According to the report, there were 256 disasters to documented vessels during the year within the field of station operations. There were on board these vessels 2,206 persons, of whom 2,196 were saved, and only 10 lost. The estimated value of the vessels was $3,519,550, and that of their cargoes, $1,084,905, making the total value of property involved $4,604,455. Of this amount, $3,352,760 was saved, and $1,251,695 lost. The number of disasters involving the total loss of the vessels was 56. Besides the foregoing, there were 115 disasters to smaller crafts, from which 231 persons were saved, with the loss of only one life. The total loss of life was the smallest ever reached by the service, except in the year 1880, when but nine persons were lost. During the fourteen years' existence of the present service the total value of property saved has amounted to over $35,000,000, and there have been over 25,000 persons saved, with only 457 lost out of all those endangered. These figures seem almost incredible, and speak

volumes for the efficiency of the service, reflecting the greatest credit, not only upon the superintendents and directors, but upon the keepers and crews of all the stations as well.

- Mr. W. M. Davis has recently given in the American meteorological journal an account of the derivation of the term 'trade-wind.' The original meaning of the word 'trade' has been so far replaced by an acquired meaning, that a popular error has arisen as to the derivation of the common term, 'trade-wind.' Webster's dictionary says the trade-wind is "so called because of great advantage to navigators, and hence to trade." Worcester's dictionary explains it as "so called because favorable to commerce." But locking further back, the following extract from Skeat's etymological dictionary is instructive: "Tradewind, a wind blowing in a constant direction, formed from the phrase, 'to blow trade,' to blow always in the same course." A step further discovers that trade is “properly that path which we tread.' . . . It once meant, literally, a 'path.' . . . The M. E. [Middle English] words are tred' and trod,' both in the sense of foot-mark. All from the A. S. [Anglo-Saxon] 'tredan,' to tread." The following extracts show the early use of the term, two or three centuries ago, by the navigators of that time: Hakluyt wrote, The wind blowing trade, without an inch of sail, we spooned before the sea" (Voyages,' iii. 849, published in 1600). Dampier said, "Trade-winds are such as do blow constantly from one point or quarter of the compass. There are divers sorts of these winds; some blowing from east to west, some from south to north, others from west to east, etc. Some are constant in one quarter all the year; some blow one-half the year one way, and the other six months quite contrary; and others blow six months one way, and then shifting only eight or ten points, continue six months more, and then return again to their former stations, as all these shifting trade-winds do" (Discourse of the tradewinds, in his 'Voyages and descriptions,' London, 1705, vol. ii. part iii. pp. 1, 2).

-The Fourth annual report of the U. S. entomological commission,' after much seemingly unnecessary delay on the part of the public printer, has recently appeared, and forms a worthy addition to the preceding volumes. It deals chiefly with the cotton-worm, with a chapter on the bollworm two of the most injurious insect pests that the south, at least, has to combat. The subjects are treated fully, and a large share of attention is devoted to the consideration of insecticides and insecticide apparatus, fully justified by the importance of the subject. The losses of crops in

some places in the south during different years from the depredations of the cotton-worm or larva of the cotton-moth (Aletia), are very heavy, the total estimated loss for a single year of severe depredation throughout the southern states being as high as thirty million dollars, while the average annual loss for the fourteen years following the war is placed at fifteen million dollars. The chief objects of such entomological investigations are, of course, the discovery or improvement of remedies and of their methods of application, the results of which, both positive and negative, in this case indicate that arsenical compounds and pyrethrum, both first suggested by Dr. Riley, are the most efficacious. The boll-worm (Heliothis), on account of its wide distribution both north and south, and the almost indifference in the choice of its food-plants (or food-habits, for it is omnivorous, carnivorous, and cannabalistic), is but little less injurious a pest. The northern agriculturist, or even the northern housewife, is only too familiar with it for its injuries to growing corn in the ear. Their depredations are within the boll or pod of the cotton, and often render whole fields valueless. Aside from the more practical nature of the work accomplished, chiefly by or under the direction of Professor Riley, the report contains considerable matter of more strictly scientific interest on the habits, etc., of different insects, including a chapter on the anatomy of Aletia by Dr. Minot and Mr. Burgess.

The Prince of Monaco sailed from the military port of Lorient July 14, in company with Professor Ponchet, to pursue a series of observations on the Gulf Stream. He carried with him five hundred floats, so constructed as to be affected by naught save the currents, to be placed in the water near the twentieth degree of west longitude, between the latitude of Cape Finisterre and that of the south of England. In addition, he has fitted out with the necessary appliances for deep-sea and surface zoological collecting, which will be pursued during the voyage.

A marked improvement in the criminality of Spain has been apparent during the last few decades. In 1843, with a population of twelve million, there were 17,683 crimes against the person, and 10,425 against property; while in 1884, with a population of seventeen million, the numbers had decreased to 9,187 and 9,599 respectively. These figures are, however, yet very high in comparison with those of France. Thus, during 1883 there were 1,457 homicides or assassinations in Spain against only seven hundred in France, with more than double the population. Infanticides, however, are proportionally less common. It is

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