more and more to meet on terms of strict equality; the circulation increasing in its rapidity at each and every step in that direction, with daily growth of that feeling of confidence which prompts to maintenance of our own rights when these are threatened to be invaded; and of that self-respect which demands compliance with the divine decree by which we are required to do to all others as, under like circumstances, we should desire to have them do by ourselves.

Such are the relations of physical, social, mental, and moral science.*

CHAPTER XIV.

DEFINITIONS.

A TRUE definition is one that embraces all which should be included while excluding all that should not. Those here given, as it is believed, fulfil these conditions.

"That the scientific method of inquiry is inadequate, and inapplicable to the higher study of man, is a widely prevalent notion, and one which seems, to a great extent, to be shared alike by the ignorant and the educated. Holding the crude idea that science pertains only to the material world, they denounce all attempts to make human nature a subject of strict scientific inquiry, as an intrusion into an illegitimate sphere. Maintaining that man's position is supreme and exceptional, they insist that he is only to be comprehended, if at all, in some partial, peculiar and transcendental way. In entire consistence with this hypothesis is the prevailing practice; for those who, by their function as teachers, preachers, and lawgivers, profess to have that knowledge of man which best qualifies for

Utility is the measure of man's power over na

ture.

Value is the measure of nature's power over man; of the resistance she offers to the gratification of his desires. Its extent is limited within the cost of reproduction.

Wealth consists in the power of man to command the always gratuitous service of nature-in the sum of the utilities developed.

Production consists in directing those forces to man's service.

Capital is the instrument by help of which the work is done, whether existing in the form of land, ships, wagons, houses, mental or physical force.

Trade consists in the performance of exchanges for other persons, being the instrument used byCommerce, which consists in the exchange of services, products, or ideas, by men, and with their fellow-men.

As the power of association grows, utilities increase, while values decline.

As the value of commodities declines, that of man rises, with increase in the development of individuality, and in the security of property and of person.

directing him in all relations, are, as a class, confessedly ignorant of science. There are some, however, and happily their number is increasing, who hold that this idea is profoundly erroneous; that the very term 'human nature' indicates man's place in that universal order which it is the proper office of science to explore; and they accordingly maintain that it is only as the servant and interpreter of nature' that he can rise to anything like a true understanding of himself.”—Youmans, Lecture on the Scientific Study of Human Nature.

As person and and property become more secure, men and capital tend to become more fixed, and a smaller proportion of both remains in the floating state.

As men and capital become fixed, and the powers of nature are more and more developed, local centres increase in number and importance, with daily tendency toward establishment of the same beautiful system by means of which the harmony of the universe is maintained.

As local centres thus increase in number and attraction, societary positives and negatives are brought to more intimate association, each with every other; each and every stage of progress in this direction being attended with diminution of necessity for the trader's services, increase in the power of production, in the growth of capital, and in the rapidity of its circulation-with corresponding increase of commerce.

Competition may be for the SALE of human force, physical or mental, or its products; or, it may be for the PURCHASE of each and all of these. The first increases as societary positives and negatives become more widely separated; as labor becomes less productive and more controlled by capital; and as matter thus obtains power over mind. The second grows as positives and negatives are brought into more intimate connection each with every other; as labor becomes more productive, and as the laborer of the present grows in power as compared with the accumulations of the past; mind thus obtaining increased control over matter. In the one

case the tendency is in the direction of inequality of condition, growing selfishness and barbarism, and daily diminished societary force. In the other it is toward equality of condition, growing self-respect, civilization, and daily growing societary force.

The British system looks to annihilation of competition for purchase of labor or its products elsewhere than in Britain. The resistant one looks to production of such competition throughout the world. Hence it is, that while the former tends everywhere toward subjection of mind to matter, and toward the subjugation of labor to capital, the latter tends equally toward perfect freedom of thought, speech, and action among all mankind.

APPENDIX.

THE LAW OF DISTRIBUTION.

§ 1. CAPITAL, the instrument by means of which man acquires power over the forces of nature, is a result of the accumulated mental and physical efforts of the past. The fibre of the wood

which Crusoe required for his bow had been at all times equally capable of rendering service; but without an exercise of mental effort the bow would have remained unmade. Once made, its value was great, having been obtained at the cost of serious labor; its utility was, however, small, for it was capable of little work.

Friday had no canoe. Had he desired to borrow that of Crusoe, the latter might have said: "Fish abound at a little distance from the shore. Without the help of my machine you will scarcely obtain food enough for yourself; whereas with it you will, in little time, take enough to supply us both. Give me three-fourths of all you take, and the remainder shall be your

Own."

one.

Hard as this might seem, Friday would have accepted the offer, profiting of Crusoe's capital though paying dearly for its use. Reflecting, however, that if he can become owner of a boat he will then retain the entire product, he next makes terms with Crusoe for the use of his knife, and by its aid succeeds in making Both being now capitalists their conditions have much approximated, notwithstanding the advances that Crusoe may himself have made. At first his wealth stood at 10, while that of Friday was at 0. The former has now reached 40, but the latter has attained to 10. Tendency toward equality is thus the certain result of that growth of wealth by means of which man is enabled to substitute mental for merely physical force. Every increase in his power over nature is but the preparation for greater progress in the same direction; here as everywhere, it being the first step which is the most costly yet the least productive. Look where we may, we find man passing from the weaker to the more powerful instruments of production; the poor settler using wood in the production of iron, though surrounded by

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