ratio of the orderly arrangement of the human positives and negatives submitted to its direction.

Throughout the long period of forty years the efforts of the first Alexander, of his brother Nicholas, and of his nephew the present Emperor, were directed toward the substitution of a true pyramid for that inverted one which previously had existed -the results having recently exhibited themselves in a measure of emancipation the most remarkable of all that the world yet has seen; one whose success is here described as having been in all respects most complete; one that has given to the societary structure a broad base of admirably disposed, though as yet but very ignorant, body of workingmen free to sell their labors in the dearest market; and one that has proved but the precursor of other and most "important reforms," tending to enable the Empire "to move forward with a steady progress that promises in this generation to make up for much wasted time in the past."

"In no country of Europe," says Mr. Barry, "has the march of civilization and progress in modern times been more rapid, decided, and systematic than in Russia;" all this, as he continues, "having been effected by the energy and wisdom of a few master minds; and to become a matter of astonishment to future generations; proving, when fully revealed, one of the most instructive chapters of history;" proving further, as it does, the utter worthlessness of that trading policy of laissez faire by means of which the societary body is proposed to be denied

all power of intervention for promoting association among the individuals of which it is composed.*

That the broader the base the higher may the building be carried is a truth as certain in social as it is in architectural science. Having, as above described, laid the foundation in a great and rapidly increasing domestic commerce, Russia carries steadily up the apex of her edifice; her foreign commerce having grown with the growth of power amongst her people to pay for the products of other climes, and the day being now held to be fast approaching when Moscow will be the grand centre of commerce between the various peoples of Asia and those of Europe. That such will be the case is highly probable, transportation throughout the empire being even now effected at a cost that is wonderfully small, and Russian transportation ranking among the best the world can furnish.

For nearly half a century Germany and Russia have been engaged in the effort at bringing into orderly arrangement their hundred millions of human positives and negatives; that effort having been maintained in absolute defiance of gentlemen who have sought to enlighten the world by means of "a science based upon assumptions;" a science by whose

* In one of his pamphlets Mr. Cobden told his countrymen that in the free trade period, 1815-24, Russia had been so entirely dependent upon foreigners that stoppage of intercourse with them would have been "to doom a portion of her people to absolute nakedness." By promoting interdependence at home the government has secured for itself independence abroad, the two marching every where together throughout the world.

present teachers they are daily taught that national prosperity and happiness must inevitably result from submission to a system of "warfare" having for its object that of enabling a few of the "most wealthy English capitalists" to annihilate foreign competition, and thus prevent every where outside of Britain the growth of that habit and those powers of association to which alone can we look for such development of human force as is required for enabling man to become controller and director of the great natural forces, and to obtain for himself full exercise of that greatest of human faculties, the power for self-direction.

The Russian statesman looks to giving mind a mastery over matter, the result exhibiting itself in the fact, as stated by our author, that "starve the peasants don't, and beg they don't." The English policy, now so generally taught, looks on the contrary to maintaining and increasing the power of matter over mind, its results exhibiting themselves, as has been already shown, in a rapidly rising tide of pauperism, and in an agricultural population having before it no future but the poor-house.

The tendencies throughout the two great empires of the eastern continent having thus been shown to be in the former direction, we may now with advantage study the course of events in these United States, constituting as they do the great empire of the West.

CHAPTER VIII.

MATTER AND MIND.-(Continued.)

1. WHEN Lord Chatham asserted his determination that Englishmen who had gone to countries beyond the Atlantic should not be allowed to make for themselves even so much as a "hob-nail," he merely gave to the bankers, brokers, trading and manufacturing capitalists of England assurance that they should continue to be protected in their already existing right to demand and receive threefourths of the produce of American labor ?* The colonists might, if they would, exhaust their soils and thus ruin themselves in the effort at furnishing the world's supply of tobacco, provided only, that their products passed outward by aid of the ships, sailors, traders, and brokers of England. They might, if they would, raise sheep, but to enable them to convert their wool into hats or coats they must ask the aid of British ships and mills, paying to their owners the accustomed tribute. They might

* "If we examine into the circumstances of the inhabitants of our plantations, and our own, it will appear that not one-fourth of their product redounds to their own profit, for, out of all that comes here, they only carry back clothing and other accommodations for their families, all of which is of the merchandise and manufacture of this kingdom. All these advantages we receive by the plantations, besides the mortgages on the planters' estates and the high interest they pay us, which is very considerable." Gee on Trade, London, 1750.

convert timber and ore into crude iron, but before they could be allowed to use it for construction of a plough, a wheel, or a house, it must twice cross the ocean. Diversity of employments was thus by law prohibited, and thus were the unfortunate colonists deprived of all exercise of that power of association to which alone could they look for such development of their various faculties as was required for enabling them to become masters and directors of the great natural forces, thereby acquiring for themselves power for self-direction.* Capital, as its owners were assured, was to remain master over labor, and matter was to be maintained in its mastery over mind, precisely as was then the case throughout the British West India Islands, and as it since has been in both India and Australia. Then, as now, the positives and negatives of society were to be everywhere prevented from so taking their places side by side together as would give occasion to any development whatsoever of mental force.

The grievous subjugation of labor to capital thus established compelled a resistance that was followed by revolution so complete that the right to independent legislation became at length secured. That it should be profitably exercised it was, however, needed that all the late provinces should be brought to act together, thereby forming "a more perfect union" than that by which their people had been carried through the troubles of the past. For ob

* See note to p. 27, ante.