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1814.] Mr. Winch's Habitats and Botanic Memoranda.

mountains which surround this place were observed to be perfectly white; on the 4th the weather became mild and seasonable, which continued till the 20th; the remainder was dry, with frosty nights, and sold easterly winds.

May. The former half of this month was very cold and droughty. On the evening of the 14th we had some light. ning, and a loud peal of thunder. weather afterwards was extremely wet, with frequent falls of hail.

The

June was on the whole very cold for the season. It was also dry, with brisk

parching northerly winds.

July. During this month we had some intervals of cold and gloomy weather, but the greater part was bright, sea. sonable, and pleasant.

August was throughout exceedingly fa vourable for the harvest; the weather was droughty, particularly the latter half of the month, which was wholly without rain.

September. The quantity of rain, 1.98 inches, fell in light showers in the former part of the month. After the 15th the weather continued remarkably serene and pleasant. The crops in these northern counties this season have been the most productive, and the weather the most favourable for securing the grain, we ever witnessed.

October. The greater part of this month was seasonable and pleasant; on the 15th we had showers of hail and sleet, and on the following day all the neigh bouring mountains were patched with snow Skiddaw, Saddleback, and Crossfell, the highest mountains in this county, were perfectly white; after this time the nights were generally frosty; on the morning of the 29th the thermometer was 5 degrees below the freezing point.

November. The temperature was variable, and the weather at times very stormy. On the 15th, 16th, and 17th, showers of snow and sleet fell; on the morning of the 17th the fields in the vicimity of this city were covered with snow, at which time much snow was observed on the mountains. The last week of the month was a moderate frost, and very pleasant.

December. The weather during this month was exceedingly fine for the season; short intervals of frost occurred, which, on the two last days of the month, was unusually severe. No snow fell; and the quantity of rain, .97 parts of an inch, is very trifling.

The annual mean of the barometer this year is the highest, and the quantity of MONTHLY MAG, No. 251.

17

rain which corresponds with it is the least
that has occurred during the period of
this register, namely 13 years. The au
nual mean of the thermometer is 7-tenths
of a degree below the general summary,
Carlisle,
WM. PITT.
January 3, 1814,

To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine.

SIR,

MANY

an

ANY people have an unguarded method of placing a poker in the fire, until it is red hot; and on taking it out, setting it upright by the side of the grate, from which I believe fatal accidents have happened by the clothes of females coming in contact with the poker, and thereby taking fire. I send you these remarks from the circumstance of a little girl of mine, having had her clothes set on fire a few days ago, through this incautious practice. And I would recommend to every person, on taking a poker out of the fire, to lay it with the heated part under the grate, and the handle resting on the fender. Bristol.

R. TORKINGTON.

The utility of Mr. T's paper will be increased by the addition of an observation of our own, that every poker ought to be provided with a cross just below the bright part, to catch it on the fender when it slips, often red hot, out of the fire. The cross would generally catch it on the fender, but if it were to roll on the hearth rug, or carpet, it would raise the hot end above dents. Indeed, since the first publication the floor, and prevent many serious accipainful duty to record two or three deaths of the Monthly Magazine, it has been our from this cause.

EDITOR.

For the Monthly Magazine. HABITATS and BOTANIC MEMORANDA; by Mr. WINCH.

E

UONYMUS Europeus. AboutBrockham, Betchworth, and Mickleham, Surrey. N. J. W.

RIBES rubrum. Hedges and woods in the north, frequent. N. J. W.-About Settle, Yorkshire; Mr. Windsor.

RIBES petræum. Ravensworth, woods and hedges near Harperley, Durham. N. J. W.-Rocks between Gordale and Malham Tarn, Yorkshire; Mr. Windsor.

RIBES alpinum. Rocks between Gordale and Malham Tarn, Yorkshire; Mr. Windsor.-Studley Woods, Yorkshire; Mr. Brunton.

RIBES nigrum. In hedges, and by rivulets, in the north, not uncommon. N. J. W-Berbeck's Weir and Settle Keys, Yorkshire; Mr. Windsor.

D

RIBES

RIBES Grossularea. In woods and hedges about Newcastle. N. J.W. RIBES Uva crispa. On rocks between Chapel in the Dale and Meirgill, York shire; Mr. Windsor,-Near Darlington, Durham; W. Weighell's Herbarium.

ILLECEBRUM verticillatum. Tallowater, Bradoc, Cornwall; Mr. E. Forster. THESIUM linophyllum. Banstead Downs, Surrey; Mr. E. Forster.-Box hill, and between Ranmore and Dorking, Surrey; Mr. J. Woods.-Newmarket; Mr. D. Turner.

VINCA minor. Tanfield, near Ripon, Yorkshire; Mr. Brunton.

VINCA major. Lane between Hampstead and the Edgeware road, Middlesex, and near Matlock, Derbyshire. N. J. W. -River sides at Bath; Mr. Thompson.

To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine.

SIR,

MR

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R. Thomas Collinson has, in your number of January, very commendably endeavoured to rectify Dr. Shaw's errors in his scheme of vowels; but has not succeeded in his explanation of them, being apparently deceived by the eye, whereas the ear ought to be alone consulted. There are, including the diphthongs, eighteen vowel-sounds in the English language. Of these six are short, that is, they cannot be pronounced unless they either issue out of a syllable preceding, or rest upon a consonant or vowel sound following. These six short vowel-sounds are found: 1. in at; 2. in egg; 3. in at; 4. in hot; 5. in bull; 6. in but. Six vowel-sounds are mere protractions of the foregoing short vowelsounds; and are found, 1. in aunt; 2. in hate; 3. in seek; 4. in all; 5. in rood; 6. in an expression of disgust or surprise, eugh! or in the French word creuse. The remaining six vowel-sounds may very properly retain their simple name of dipos poofyos diphthong, or dipthong, or doublesound; because they are none of them extensions of a short vowel-sound, and therefore cannot be characterized, as are the other six double vowel-sounds, which are protractions of the six short vowel sounds. The six dipthongs are not all of them compounds of two short vowel. sounds, for only one of them is so. Our

way of spelling them determines nothing. The six dipthougs are found, 1. in ay, or Greek at, or Latin æ; 2. in high; 3. in boys; 4. in go; 5. in lute; and 6. in cows. It is a mistake to think that the double vowel-sound in go is an extension of the short vowel-sound in gut. It is an association of ideas which leads to that error,

which the ear can rectify. The double vowel-sound or dipthong in go cannot be shortened so as to be reduced to a short vowel-sound; therefore I have classed, or rather negligently relinquished it, among the dipthongs, or uncharacterised double vowel sounds. The ear can determine all these matters with certainty. Our spelling-books and other nonsense open the opportunity for dispute, which common sense should have precluded, because the ear will not deceive. There is a provincial way of sounding great as gray ut: but there are vowel-sounds in that way of pronouncing, so that it is unnecessary to add another vowel to the eighteen. The French have a very long vowel-sound in the last syllable of abbaye, but with this we are unacquainted in the polished general language of England. Our way of spelling is literally a hieroglyphic, and exhibits the English language in masquerade. No wonder that so many mistakes should arise. RICHARD EDWARDS. Bloomsbury, Jan. 4, 1813.

two

To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine.

I'

SIR,

T has hitherto been the uniform opinion of astronomers, that it is impossible, in any instance, to see the planet Venus at the time of her superior conjunction with the Sun, when she presents to the Earth a full enlightened hemisphere.

This opinion is expressed in strong and pointed terms by Martin, Gravesande, Long, Ferguson, Brewster, and other astronomical writers, and has been so generally taken for granted, that no writer on astronomy has ever called it in question. In opposition to this opinion, when engaged in making a series of observations on the celestial bodies in the day-time, I have ascertained, that Venus may be distinctly seen with a moderate degree of magnifying power at the moment of her supe rior conjunction with the Sun, when her geocentric latitude, at the time of conjunction, is not less than 3 degrees; having seen that planet a little before noon, on the 5th of June last, when only 2° 44′ from the Sun's eastern limb; at which time, with a magnifying power of 60 times, (the direct solar rays being intercepted) she appeared perfectly welldefined, and with a power of 15 could be distinctly perceived. I am also of opi nion, from the degree of distinctness with which she appeared at that time, that she may be seen, when only 118 from the Sun's centre; but cloudy weather prevented

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1814.]

Mr. F. S. Stuart on Rice Bread.

prevented my obtaining ocular demonstration of this fact. A paper of considerable length, containing the details and results on this and several other particulars, (which was originally read before the National Institution of Dundee, a Literary and Philosophical Society lately established) is published in Nicholson's Journal for October last.

19

this class may be distinguished when the Sun is not above an hour and a half above the horizon; but that, in every case, higher powers, such as those of 45 or 60 times, are to be preferred. 2. That most of the stars of the second magnitude may be seen with a power of 60, when the Sun is not much more than two hours above the horizon; and at any time of the day, the brightest stars of this class may be seen with a power of 100, when the sky is serene. 3. That in every instance, an increase of magnifying power has the principal effect in render ing a star easily perceptible-that the diminution of the aperture of the objectglass, in most cases produces a very slight effect, in some cases none at all; and when it is contracted beyond a certain limit, it produces a hurtful effect;

that a moderate contraction is chiefly useful, when the star appears in a bright part of the sky, not far from the Sun; and when an object-glass of a large aperture, and a small degree of magnifying power are used. 4. That the celestial bodies may be as easily distinguished at noonday, as at any time between nine in the morning and three in the afternoon, ex cept during the short days in winter. 5. That they are more easily distinguished at a high than at a low altitude; in the afternoon than in the morning; and in the northern than in the southern part of the heavens; the observer being supposed to be in north latitude. Methven, Perthshire.

The following are the conclusions deduced from the observations on Venus. 1. That the difference (if any) between the polar and equatorial diameters of this planet, may, at some future conjunction, be determined; by which it will be ascertained, whether Venus, like the Earth, and several other planets, be an oblate spheroid. 2. That during the space of 588 days, the time she takes in moving from one conjunction with the Sun to a like conjunction again, when her latitude at the time of her superior conjunction exceeds 3o, she may be seen with an equatorial telescope every clear day, without interruption, except at the time of her inferior conjunction, and three or four days before and after it. 3. That every variation of the phases of this planet, from a slender crescent to a full enlightened hemisphere, may, on any clear day, be conveniently exhibited; which will form an easy and useful me thod of illustrating, by actual observation, the truth of the solar system to students of astronomy. 4. That useful observations on Venus might be sometimes made in the day-time, which might for ever set at rest those disputes which have arisen respecting the period of her rotation, and the satellite, which some have supposed to accompany her. 5. That a HEN I presumed to insert, in diminution of the aperture of the objectyour valuable publication, the glass of the telescope, and the interpo- article respecting rice bread, in your sition of an opake body, to intercept the number 230, for August 1, 1812, p. 17, direct solar rays, are requisite, in order in auswer to Mr. Johnas, it was the reto see this planet distinctly, when very sult of an experiment, made under my near the Sun. 6. That the common ex-personal strict observation,ready to besubpressions of astronomical writers, which assert or imply the impossibility of see ing this planet at the time of its superior conjunction, ought to be laid aside, or qualified in such a manner as not to convey an erroneous idea.

I have also deduced the following conclusions, from a series of observations made on the fixed stars in the day-time. 1. That a telescope furnished with a magnifying power of 30 times, is sufficient for distinguishing a fixed star of the first magnitude, even at noon-day, when it is not within 400 of the Sun's body, and has a moderate degree of elevation above the horizon. Also that with a magnifying power of 15, a star of

T. DICK.

To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine.

SIR,

W

stantiated upon oath of four more persons,
which evinced, that that gentleman had
been imposed upon by his servants; but
I am beyond measure surprised that any
one, afterwards, should have committed
himself so far, as not only to contradict
the above fair and clear statement, (as
your correspondent J. H. Q. has done
in your Magazine, No. 233, for Novem-
ber, 1812, page 313,) but even go so far
as gravely to assert that, for many years,
in the Foundling Hospital, twenty-four
pounds of rice have produced the same
quantity of baked pudding, as one hun
dred and sixty pounds of wheaten flour!
Credat que Dult!!

FERDINAND SMYTH STUART.
D 2

For

For the Monthly Magazine.
ON the ORIGIN of COMETS, and the
THEORY of their MOTIONS; by M LA
GRANGE: translated from the Connais.
sunce des Tems for 1814.

THE

HE ingenious hypothesis of M. OLBERS, is well known for explaining the appearances and the small magnitude of the four new planets, and of their equal, or nearly equal, distances from the Sun. This hypothesis supposes those planets to be only fragments of a larger planet, which performed revolutions round the Sun at the same distance, and which some extraordinary cause has burst into different pieces, which have continued their course round the Sun, at nearly the same distance, and with nearly equal velocities, but in planes differently inclined.

This hypothesis was suggested by observations on the first two of the new planets, Ceres and Pallas, and it led to the discovery of the other two, Juno and Vesta, by a careful observation of the two quarters of the heavens, in which their orbits intersect each other, which happens in Virgo and Cete.

orbit, to be described by a body projected with any given velocity, and in any given direction; but at present, it is necessary to obtain formulas producing results, simple and general.

and

I suppose, for simplicity's sake, a pla net, describing round the Sun a circle whose radius is represented by r; I demand the velocity to be impressed on that body, with its direction, in order to change the circular into an elliptic orbit, whose semi-axis, or the mean distance, shall be a, the semi-parameter b, and the inclination of the new orbit upon the first be i. With respect to the node or intersection of these orbits, it is clear that it must be in that precise spot when the new impulsion was impressed on the planet.

Let m: 1 be the ratio of the velocity communicated by this impulse to the primitive velocity of the body in the circle; and let , ß, y, be the angles which the direction of the impulse forms with the radius r, with a perpendicular to this radius in the plane of the circle, in the direction of the circular movement, and with a perpendicular to the plane itself of the circle: we shall then have

m = √(3

cos. B=

This hypothesis of Olbers, extraordinary as it may appear, is not however improbable. Persons who, like Saussure, Dolomieu, and some others, have made observations and researches into the structure of mountains, are forced to acknowledge that the Earth has under- cos. &= gone various great catastrophes, and that the strata which form its exterior crust, have been elevated, broken, and displaced, by the action of internal fire, or of some other elastic fluids. It is even possible that large portions may have been detached from the globe and thrown to a distance, where they have become aerolites, which revolve round the Earth, and again separate into smaller fragments, at the moment of their fall upon the surface of the globe: or they may have become small planets, more or less eccentric in their course round the Sun; like the comet of 1770, which Lexel and Burkardt discovered to be no other than an eccentric planet, whose period of revolution could be only about six years, or they may have become really comets.

Whatever may be thought of these hypotheses, I was curious to inquire what would be the explosive force necessary to burst a planet, so that one of the fragments might be converted into a coIn itself, this problem is not difficult; for we learn from Newton, the manner of determining the elements of an

met.

cos. y =

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b

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·2 √ -× cos. i—

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In the parabola, the distance a becomes infinite, which in the expressions of m, and of the cos. a, extinguishes the term -> and b becomes double the perihelion distance.

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a

With regard to retrograde comets, it is known that they may be regarded as direct; that is to say, as proceeding always in the same direction, but with an inclination greater than a right angle. Hence, for a direct comet moving always in the direction of the primitive circular motion, the angle i must be taken in the first quadrant; and for a retrograde comet moving in an opposite direction, the angle i must be taken in the second quadrant.

For direct comets, cos. i will therefore be positive, and the greatest value

1814.] Lagrange's Origin of Comets and Theory of Motions. 21

of m, supposing the orbit to be parabo-
lic, will be 3: but for retrograde co-
mets cos. i will be negative, and the cos.'
greatest value of m will extend to
1/5, if the demi-parameter do not ex-
ceed the primitive distance r: in general
the maximum of m, for retrograde comets,
will be

Hence m√3

is the limit separating direct from retrograde comets: below that limit they are direct, and above it they are retrograde. These results seem to me to deserve the attention of geometers, for their sim. plicity; nor do I know that any notice of them is to be found in any publication.

To have a general solution, we will suppose the primitive orbit to be an ellipse of any order, having 4 for its demiaxis or mean distance, and B for its semi-parameter: then by abridgement

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Hhcos. i

m(2

B

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2.2

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the angle y remaining the same.
In the case of the circle the quantities
A and B become: r, which give H-
and then we have the first formulas.
When the ellipse is of very small eccen-
tricity, the quantities A and B differ very
little from r, and the quantity H becomes
extremely small, in the order of the ec-
centricity: the first formulas are then
very near the truth; and, as this case
belongs to all the known planets, those
formulas are sufficient for our purpose.

In taking the mean distance of the Sun
from the Earth for the unit of distance,
and the mean velocity of the Earth for
the unit of velocity, we know that the
velocity of any planet describing round
the Sun a circle, whose radius is r, will
1
be expressed by : hence, in order
Vr

that this planet, or a portion of this pla
net, should change instantaneously its
circular orbit in an elliptic of any sort
it will be necessary that the planet, or its
portion, receive an impulse, impressing
on it a velocity, as
In order to pro-

m

duce this phænomenon,it is therefore sufficient to suppose that, by the action of any elastic fluid, unfolded and acting in the interior of the planet, from accidental causes, an explosion takes place, by which the planet separates into two or more parts; each of these parts will consequently describe an orbit, elliptic, or parabolic, proportioned to the velocity m impressed on it by the explosion.

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Vr

In this scheme, I lay aside all regard to the mutual attraction of the parts of the planet, which, when those parts are extremely minute, and are not separated with great rapidity, may occasion some small alteration in the elements of their orbits.

The mean velocity of the Earth, in its orbit round the Sun, is nearly seven leagues in a second. The velocity of a 24 pound ball, at the moment of leaving the cannon, is about 1400 feet, or 233 toises, in a second [1500 feet English]; which is also nearly that of a point on the surface of the Earth under the equator, in its diurnal rotation. For a unit, let us take that velocity of a cannon-ball, which is nearly the tenth of a league in a second, the velocity of the Earth in its

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