It is obvious from a comparison of Antiphon's Tetralogies with the comparative moderation of the speeches actually delivered (1.19 .29) that the heaping up of abstract subjects belonged to fine writing, and was borrowed, along with other ornamental figures, from the poets and the Gorgian rhetoric. Similarly the speeches attributed to Gorgias himself abound in poetical and fanciful personifications at every turn. Hence the abstract subject and poetical diction are often found together, as Ant. 1, 13 δίκη δὲ κυβερνήσειεν (Blass I, p. 130); And. 3, 7 ἡ εἰρήνη τὸν δῆμον úniòv pε; Hyp. 6, 25; Hdt. 7, 12 init. In the statement of commonplaces and general truths the abstract subject often gives a somewhat stilted and pompous effect. A very neat example is afforded by the prosy speech of the Epops, Ar. Av. 376 f., àπ' ἐχθρῶν δῆτα πολλὰ μανθάνουσιν οἱ σοφοί. | ἡ γὰρ εὐλάβεια σῴζει πάντα, and by the sophistic speech of Polos in the opening scene of the Gorgias, Pl. Gorg. 448, ο έμπειρία μὲν γὰρ ποιεῖ τὸν αἰῶνα ἡμῶν πορεύεσθαι κατὰ τέχνην, ἀπειρία δὲ κατὰ τύχην. Similarly Aristophanes evidently parodies the tragic style in Lysistrata's speech (Lys. 708 f.), and Demosthenes (18, 35) in ridiculing the solemn phrases of Aischines, probably means to include the use of the abstract subject; see Weil's note.

Finally the effect may be noted of associating purely concrete nouns with verbs which are properly used of persons. Thus Aristeides (Rhet. Gr. Sp. II 544) praises the dicThe Verb tion of Demosthenes 55, 24: a jar of wine had

πάσχειν.

been overturned, she said, but it had suffered no injury (où μévtoi nabɛiv je oùdév)', and observes that the literal meaning would have been expressed by saying that 'the oil had not been spilled (èxxv0îvai ye)'. Yet the latter would have been a trivial term, not rising above the level of common life, and Demosthenes has made a great gain in dignity by substituting the more general term aliv. While the dignity of the passage is attributed by Aristeides to the use of alɛiv as the more general word, it seems safe to conclude that it is also due in part to the personifying effect of παθεῖν. This use of πάσχειν is quite rare when the verb retains its full meaning, as again in this oration, § 25, 8 (sc. τειχίον) μήτ' ἔπεσε μήτ' ἄλλο δεινὸν μηδὲν ἔπαθεν; ib. 2o (τὸ χωρίον); [56], 23 (ń vas); Thuk. I, I2I, 3 ( huat=pa Quvau:s); Pl. Phaidr. 241, ε ὁ μῦθος, ὅ τι πάσχειν προσήκει αὐτῷ, τοῦτο πείσεται. This effect is very largely lost when яáoуe has the trite meaning 'be the case with, be the way with', chiefly in periphrases for the

person, as Ar. Nub. 234 πάσχει δὲ ταὐτὸ τοῦτο καὶ τὰ κάρδαμα; id. Pl. 551 (oúμòs Bíos); Isokr. 13, 12 (tò twv lóɣwv); Arist. Rhet. 3, 2, 1404, b. A similar elevated tone may safely be attributed to TOVεTV, used of inanimate things, as Dem. 18, 194 novŋoávtwv αὐτῷ τῶν σκευῶν ἢ καὶ συντριβέντων ὅλως; Th. 7, 38 (ἡ ναῦς); perhaps also to zvduvevety, used of money or property, as Isokr. 17, 36 εἰ μὴ κινδυνεύοι τὰ χρήματα; Dem. 30, 16 (ή προίξ); 28, 1 (δ oixos). For a similar effect through the association both of concrete and of abstract subjects with verbs commonly used of persons, see especially under ὠφελεῖν, ἐναντιοῦσθαι and τυγχάνειν, Part II.

CLASS I.

NATURAL OBJECTS AND FORCES.

Natural phenomena, such as the earth, the sea, the rivers, the winds and the like, were originally conceived by the Greeks as divine beings endowed with personal agency, as we may see in the mythological personification of the river Skamandros in Homer, Ø 212 ff. This mythological conception does not disappear altogether from the general Greek consciousness in historical times, but is apt to recur on great occasions, at least, in writers of the mythical or theological tendency. Thus Herodotos does not think it altogether incredible that the hurricane which overtook the Persian fleet off Magnesia was in reality the god Boreas, coming to the assistance of the Athenians in answer to their prayers (Hdt. 7, 189). Compare also 178, xai oyi èxpýolŋ àvéμocor εὔχεσθαι· μεγάλους γὰρ τούτους ἔσεσθαι τῇ ̔Ελλάδι συμμάχους; ib. 191, and, for the personification of the winds, see Welcker, Gr. Götterl. I, 707; Preller, Gr. Myth. I, 386 ff. Similarly the Greeks of historical times honored their chief rivers as divine beings with shrines and sacrifices, see Welcker, I, 652 f.; Preller, I, 447 f.; A. Gerber, Naturpersonif., JJ. Suppl. Bd. XIII, 269 ff.

Viewed then as divine persons, the great powers of nature are constantly associated by the early Greeks with verbs of action; thus in Homer νύξ, ἡμέρη, πῦρ, χειμών, ἄνεμος, θύελλα, πόντος, κῦμα, etc. The later conception which saw the operations of Nature in all external phenomena, was almost equally favorable to their free use as agents. Since these natural objects were viewed as efficient causes and active forces, it was as customary to place them as subjects in Greek as it is in any modern language (cf. The preceding remarks relate wholly to

Bock, 1. 1., p. 30).

natural objects conceived as divine powers or as natural agents; quite different is the poetical species of personification which attributes human actions and passions to inanimate objects in nature (see below under Personification, I).

With the exception of a single speech of Demosthenes, which deals with the obstruction of a water-course (Or. LV), there is little occasion in the orators for the use of these subjects, but they occur frequently in the historians. It will be sufficient, in illustration of this whole class, to cite a few of the bolder uses in full and give only references for the remainder: Dem. 55, II ἐμβαλὸν τὸ ὕδωρ τά τε χωρία ελυμήνατο καὶ μᾶλλον ὡδοποίει; ib. 30 πάλιν τὸ ὕδωρ εἰς τὸ ἐμὸν ἥξει χωρίον, εἶτα καταβαλεῖ τὴν αἱμασιάν ; Th. 2, 77, 6 λέγεται ὕδωρ ἐξ οὐρανοῦ πολὺ (γενόμενον) σβέσαι τὴν φλόγα; 55, 1 (τὴν γῆν), ἢ πρὸς Πελοπόννησον ὁρᾷ; 3, 89, 2 ή θάλασσα ἐπῆλθε τῆς πόλεως μέρος τι καὶ ἀνθρώπους διέφθειρεν κτέ. ; Xen. Hell. I, 7, 6 (οὐκ) αὐτοὺς αἰτίους εἶναι, ἀλλὰ τὸ μέγεθος τοῦ χειμῶνος εἶναι τὸ κωλύσαν; Th. 3, 49, 4 πνεύματος οὐδενὸς ἐναντιωθέντος (Personification); 2, 77, 4 (τὸ πῦρ) τοὺς Πλαταιᾶς ἐλαχίστου ἐδέησε διαφθεῖραι; 2, 12, 3 ήδε ἡ ἡμέρα τοῖς Ἕλλησι μεγάλων κακῶν ἄρξει; Dem. 18, 296 ἐπιλείψει με λέγοντα ἡ ἡμέρα. The following phrases with νύξ are apparently semipoetical: Th. 3, 72, 3 αφικομένης νυχτός (for the usual νὺξ ἐπεγένετο, see Classen on 3, 112, 1); 4, 129, 5 νυκτὸς ἐπελθούσης; 96, 8 ν. ἐπιλαβούσης τὸ ἔργον (commonly, as 4, 25, 2 ν. ἐπεγένετο τῷ ἔργῳ); 134, 2 ἀφελομένης τῆς ν. τὸ ἔργον; cf. Χen. Hell. 1, 2, 16.

The whole use of this class may be arranged according to subjects as follows: γῆ, χώρα: Th. 3, 23, 5; Aisch. 3, 11ο; Isokr. 7, 74; 8, 94; ΙΙ, 12; 4, 109; Th. 5, 64, 4; 2, 55, I. Ελλάς, ἡ Αττική: Dem. 9, 27 (χωρεί); id. frgm. 16. νῆσος, ἄκρα: Th. 4, 8, 6: 29, 3; 7, 4, 4; cf. 2, 93. θάλασσα: Th. 3, 89, 2; I, 12Ο, 2; Dem. 9, 70. ἐπίκλυσις: Th. 3, 89, 3. ὕδωρ, δετός: Dem. 55, 11. 17. 20. 30; Th. 8, 42, 1; 2, 5, 2. 77, 6; 4, 75; 5, 65, 4. χειμών: Th. 4, 3, 1. 6, I. 27, I; Xen. Hell. 1, 6, 35. 7, 6; Hdt. 7, 34. 170. 188. ἄνεμος, πνεῦμα, πνοή: Th. I, 54, I; 2, 93, 4. 94, Ι; 3, 49, 4; 2, 25, 4. 84, 3; 6, 2, 4; 4, 100, 4. ποταμός: Th. 2, 1Ο2, 2. 3; 1, 46, 4; Hdt. 2, 14. Νεῖλος: Isokr. II, 13. πῦρ: Th. 2, 77, 4; 3, 116, 1 (ρύαξ). σεισμός: Th. I, 23, 3; 3, 89, 2. 84, 4. For the mythological conception, cf. Ar. Lys. 1142 ὑμῖν ἐπέκειτο ὁ θεὸς σείων. ἥλιος: Hyp. 6, 5; Hdt. 7, 8 f.; Th. 2, 28. ἡμέρα: Dem. 18, 296; Isokr. 6, 81; 8, 56; Aisch. 2, 126; Th. 4, 118, 12; 2, 12, 3; Xen. Hell. 2, 2, 23; Ar. Pax 435; Plut. Lys. 15. νύξ: Th. 3, 23, 5; 7, 87, 1; 3, 72, 3, 4, 129, 5. 96, 8. 134, 2; Xen. Hell. 1, 2, 16.

CLASS II.

POPULAR AND TECHNICAL LANGUAGE.

It is important to recognize fully the large influence of the language of special classes and professions upon the use of nonpersonal subjects; see the remarks of Bock, p. 39, Class IV. The large extension of this use may be seen in any scientific work which deals with technical subjects. This special use, so far as it appears in Thukydides and the orators, will be examined under three heads:

(1) The popular language, illustrated chiefly by the familiar concrete terms which it employs, often with a species of homely personification.

(2) The legal language seen in the free use of vóμos and similar juridical terms.

(3) The learned language occupied with questions of government, literature, philosophy and education, and represented, among the orators, chiefly by Isokrates.

Language.

Concrete substantives, the names of objects belonging to the uses of daily life, are freely placed as subjects throughout the Greek language. This use occurs most naturally I. The Popular in the special language of the various arts and professions, but soon passes over in part into the common literary language, where it is often enlarged and extended under the influence of analogy. The orators have few occasions to dwell at length upon the familiar objects of common life, and their language affords no such wide exemplification of this use as we find, for example, in the comedies of Aristophanes. The examples which occur may be divided as follows:

(a) In Thukydides the concrete substantives mentioned belong chiefly, though not exclusively, to the military language. Thus we find the various implements and engines of war placed as subjects: Th. 2, 76, 4 (μηχανὴν,) ἢ τοῦ οἰκοδομήματος ἐπὶ μέγα τε κατέσεισε καὶ τοὺς Πλαταιᾶς ἐφόβησεν; 77, I ὡς αἱ μηχαναὶ οὐδὲν ὠφέλουν; 76, 4 (δοκός); 3, 22, 4 (κεραμίς); 7, 65, 2 (χείρ), cf. 62, 3; -or fortifications, buildings and the like: 4, 115, 3 тò dè oixnua κατερράγη καὶ τοὺς ἐγγὺς ἐλύπησε μᾶλλον ἢ ἐφόβησεν; 6, 66, I (τειχία zaì oixía); [Lys.] 2, 45 (Teixos). Similar subjects in Thukydides are the following: 4, 34, 3 (πίλος); 2, 75, 2 (λίθοι καὶ εἴ τι ἄλλο); I, 93, 5 and 2, 34, 3 (ăμaža); cf. Hyp. 2, 5 (Seūros). It is

needless to say that this use varies largely with the style of the author. Several of the constructions just quoted from Thukydides are free and bold; still more striking is the personification in the following: 4, 100, 1 ἄλλῳ τε τρόπῳ πειράσαντες καὶ μηχανὴν προσήγαγον, ἤπερ εἷλεν αὐτό (sc. τὸ τείχισμα), (' finally they brought up an engine of war which took the fort, effected its capture'). Here Krüger wished to avoid the personification of unzavý by writing ᾗπερ εἷλον, but Classen is right in maintaining that the construction is in keeping with the general boldness of Thukydides' manner; cf. also 8, 9Ι, Ι φάσκων κινδυνεύσειν τὸ τεῖχος τοῦτο καὶ τὴν πόλιν διαφθεῖραι.

(b) Concrete substantives are comparatively rare in the orators; compare, however, Dem. 55, 19 and Th. 3, 107, 3 (χαράδρα); Aisch. 1, 123 (τὰ οἰκήματα). In the language of business and trade we find the following: Aisch. 3, 173 νῦν μέντοι τὸ βασιλικὸν χρυσίον ἐπικέκλυκε τὴν δαπάνην αὐτοῦ (‘a food of Persian gold has washed away all traces of his extravagance'); Dem. 14, 20 ὅπως τὴν μὲν δαπάνην ἑξήκοντα τάλαντα συντελῇ, . . . εἴκοσι μὲν ᾖ τάλαντα τὴν δαπάνην διαλύοντα ( make up, liquidate the whole expense');' 45, 33 δι' ὃν ὠφειλήκει τοσαῦτα χρήματα ἡ τράπεζα (collective use); 22, 54 τὰς εἰσφορὰς πότερον τὰ κτήματα ἢ τὰ σώματα ὀφείλει; 22,75 ἐκπώματα πλούτου τινὰ δόξαν προσετρίψατο τοῖς κεκτημένοις. There is obvious personification in Lys. 21, 8: οὕτω παρεσκευασμένην τριήρη πόσα οἴεσθε ἀνηλωκέναι χρήματα ἢ πόσα τοὺς πολεμίους εἰργάσθαι κακά, where Herwerden's correction, παρεσκευασμένον <τὴν > τρ. < μ' > οἴεσθε, seems quite unnecessary; cf. Dem. 51, 17 τῆς τριήρους τῆς ληψομένης τὸν στέφανον ; 24, 12 ; Th. 8, 106, 4 ἀπέστειλαν τριήρη ἄγγελον τῆς νίκης; 3, 36, 3 (τρ. ἄγγελος, also 36, 2 νῆες βοηθοί). We meet with personification in a simile drawn from weighing, Dem. 5, 12 (ἀργύριον), and in one drawn from the language of medicine, 3, 33 (τὰ παρὰ τῶν ἰατρῶν σιτία). In some cases the popular belief and judicial procedure personified inanimate objects. Thus inanimate objects which had caused death were brought to a formal trial in the court called τὸ ἐπὶ Πρυτανείῳ, and, if found guilty of pollution, were removed beyond the boundaries: Aisch. 3, 244 τὰ ξύλα καὶ τοὺς λίθους καὶ τὸν σίδηρον, τὰ ἄφωνα καὶ ἀγνώμονα, ἐάν τῳ ἐμπεσόντα ἀποκτείνῃ, ὑπερορίζομεν (see Weidner's note, Jebb on Soph. El. 484 f., and Schömann, Antiq. 295); Dem. 23, 76; cf. Ant. 3, β, 4.

1 For a still bolder personification in this sphere, compare N. T. Luk. 19, 16: Κύριε, ἡ μνᾶ σου δέκα προσηργάσατο μνᾶς, ‘Lord, thy pound hath gained ten pounds.'