when he fees Iphigenia deliver to Pylades á letter written on a fcrap of paper, and folded like those which are fent daily by the poft. lop, at the Court of Croefus, addreffing a Colonel in a French uniform; and Strabo, in the piece of Democritus in Love, looking through his telescope at the feeples, and making almanacks, are equally abfurd. Laftly, had antiquity been more attentively obferved, the elder Horatius would not have called Servius Tullius Sire; and the great Racine himself, who was fo well versed in the ftudy of the claffic authors; would not have made his interlocutors repeat so often the word Madame. Study of Archeology, and the Mode of obtaining a Knowledge of that Science. In the preceding article I have expounded what has been my aim in commencing my courfes of lectures, and in publishing this and my other elementary works.Without making a parade of an eloquence of ftyle, on the core of which I feel my felf deficient, or of a vain erudition, which is eafy to acquire, I thall fimply remaik, that if I have any advantage over many others who might do better than myfelf, it is because I am entrusted with the charge of the richeft collection of antiques of every defcription, with the exception of thofe of Italy; at the fame time that I have within my reach one of the fineft libraries in the world.* Several men of diftinguished merit have inquired how a courfe of lectures on antiquities is to be given. It appears to me that I have furnished a reply to this queftion, by the enumeration of the attainments which form the bafis of the inftruction. Who can poffefs fo extenfive and fo varied a collection as that of the French National Mufeum? And who can entertain any doubt of the intereft of the courfe in which all the monuments cited in the lectures may be fucceffively brought to the view. If thefe lectures fail to pleafe, the Profeffor does not hesitate to declare that the fault originates with him; fince it requires but a moderate share of talents on his fide to in erett his auditors, when he can place before them a multitude of curiofities, fo rare, fo interefting, ard of fo varied a nature. This is not the first opportunity, how ever, which has been offered to thofe who have profeffed a wish to be inftructed in the fcience of archeology, fimilar lec *That of Par's. tures having been inftituted at the time of the revival of the arts. At Florence, Lorenzo de Medici eftablifhed fchools, the profeffors of which were enjoined to lay before their pupils the productions of the ancients, and to enable them, by their inftructions, to appreciate their merits, before they were allowed to follow the bent of their own particular genius. Thefe fchools contributed to form a great number of first-rate fculptois, painters, and archite&s, the moft celebrated of whom was Michael Angelo Buonarotti. The effect of this example was, that the patrons of learning would not allow any monument to pass unnoticed, and either wrote or caufed defcriptions to be made of them. From that epoch feveral diftinguished men of letters have taught archeology.Niewpoort aftached himself to the part of the cuftoms and ufages; while Christ and Ernefti made the monuments their particular purfuit. Oberlin has, during thirty years, profeffed archeology in the city of Strafburg, with fo much celebrity, thit a confiderable number of enlightened men have judged it adviftable to take leffons from him before they fhould fet ont on their travels. Heyne, the friend and fucceffor of the immortal Winckelmann, fill teaches archeology in the University of Göttingen. Büfching, who united to a pr.found knowledge of geography that of antiquities, has left us feveral of the Treatiles he drew up for the use of his pupils. The celebrated Eckhel, confervator of the Mufeum of Vienna, delivers regular courfes of lectures on antiquities. The definition of archeology which I have given, and the method I have adopted in defcribing its different branches, prove that it forms a particular science : it may, therefore, be reduced by precepts into a theory, and may be taught. To those who fhould allege, that it may be learned without a mafter by any one who fhould purchase the different works in which it is treated, my aniwer would be briefly this-that, in 'ependently of the works in question being as fearce and difficuit of purchase as they are numerous, the fight of the monuments, without the obfervation of which it is impoffible to make any certain and rapid progrefs, would be a conftant obftacle to the profe cution of the study. To maintain the contrary propofition would be as if one were to fay, that courses of natural history are not of any utility, because nature is every where to be found, and becaufe the books which treat of her works are in in every library. Where, however, can fo great a progiefs be made in that feience, as in a museum in which the demonftrator has affembled whatever is necessary to the intruction of his pupils ? According to the order I have eftablifhed in my lectures, I begin by archeelogy, and by the ftudy of the monu rents. After having fucceffively run through the monuments of the different claffes, I recapitulate the attainments which have been acquired, by a few general obferva tions on the art. namely, the ancient ftyle, the intermediate or middle ftyle, and the modern style. Proceeding hence to the hiftory of the art among the Greeks, we trace it from its infancy to the time of Daedalus, three generations before the fiege of Troy.— We follow its progrefs until the expedi tion of Xerxes, when we fee the art flourish in Greece after the battles of Salamis and Platea, four hundred and eighty years before Chrift, until the commencement of the Peloponnefan war. We admire the epoch of confummate taste, and of the grand style, under the adminiaraI examine, in the first place, the origin tion of Pericles, in the first year of the of the art, its aim, the ufe of the fymbols, twenty-fourth Olympiad, four hundred that of the allegories, and the differences and tixty years before Chrift. We fee between the art and the fine art. We per- afterwards the viciffitudes of the art under ceive why the Egyptians, to whom be- the fucceflors of Alexander, at the time of longs the glory of the highest antiquity in the Achæan leagues, under the Ptolemies the exercile of the art, attained a high and Seleuci, in the courts and cities of pitch of excellence in the mechanical part, Afia Minor; and, laftly, at the period but could never reach the fine art itself. when the Greeks were established among We investigate the three different epochs the Romans, to whom they were subject. of the art among that people; the firit, At each epoch the great artists who have when they had laws, a religion, and man- given it celebrity are pointed out. ners, peculiar to themfelves, until the inva on of Cambyfes, five hundred and twenty-four years before Jefus Chrift, and the fir year of the fourth Olympiad. The fecond, at the time when Egypt was under the domination of the Perfians, Greeks, and Romans. And, laftly, the third, when the works of the Egyptian artilts were imitated by the Greek artifts, in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, a hundred and feventeen years after Jefus Chrift. Thefe three epochs confequently embrace the ancient Egyptian ftyle, the modern Egyptian ftyle, and the Græco-Egyptian ftyle. Hence we fee the art very anciently cultivated among the Etrufcans, by whom the fine art was attained. In their reprefentations they blended the mythological ideas of the Greeks with those that were peculiar to themfelves. We find in the productions which have been tranfmitted to us, the traces of their riches, magnificence, and tafte. We perceive that they formed a rich and powerful community before the foundation of Rome; and that they were to be comprehended among the nations enlightened by the arts, at a time when the Romans were ftill in a ftate of barbarifim, four hundred and feventy-one years after the foundation of Rome, and two hundred and eighty-four before the Christian era. In their works, which are peculiarly characterized by their strong expreflion, we likewife remark the ftyles, The hiftory of the art among the Romans terminates the statement. We fee thefe haughty conquerors lay waste Etruria and Greece, until they were themielves fubdued by the power of the arts, at the annihilation of which they seemed to aim in the firft inftance. Mummius diffeminated throughout Italy a taste for the productions of the art, by causing a multitude of chef d'œuvres to be tranfported to Rome. We fee Rome peopled, as it were, with ftatues, after the taking of Corinth, and the deftruction of the Achean league. We fee the objects of the art become the prey of greedy pro-confuls; and the thirft of gold for their acquifition lay the foundation of unprecedented rapine and extortions. While the young nobility of Rome were paffionate admirers of the arts, the Romans confidered the profeffion of an artift as unworthy the pursuit of a freeman. However, their power, riches, and liberalities, called the great artifs to Rome; and the art flourished there in the highest degree under Auguftus and his more immediate fucceffors. It afterwards degenerated progreffively until the time of Septimius Severus, when its decay became very fenfible. In the Lower Empire it was extinguished to fuch a degree, that the mechanical proceffes alone were tranfmitted to us in the middle ages. Having reached that epoch, the revival of the art falls under confideration. With fuch a store of general know ledge, ledge, my pupils are enabled to travel in the ancient world, and to examine its customs, ufages, and monuments. The ordinary routine of geographers is to begin by Spain, and proceed from the weft to the east. I take, however, a contrary route, to the end that my tract may be conformable to the chronological feries of events, and to the progrefs of the human understanding. Thus, in fetting out on their travels, my auditors pay a visit to Egypt, which, as far at least as our traditions carry us, gave birth to literature, arts, and sciences. I fhow, either in nature, in relief, or in figures, the monuments which are ftill exifting. I follow the fame method relatively to each of the countries we have to explore, paffing from Africa into Afia. We obferve the manners, ufages, and monuments, of the Perfians, as we had already taken a furvey of thofe of the Egyptians. Paffing through Afia Minor in the fame way, we proceed thence to Europe. After having visited Greece, we bend our courfe to Italy, next to Spain, next to the Northern and Gothic nations, and, laftly, to Gaul. Having confidered France under the domination of the Romans, we examine her condition under her kings; and in contemplating the principal monuments of the French monarchy, we diftinguifh thofe which ftill exift from thofe which Vandalism has destroyed, (Continued from p. 220, No. 113.) T forms a peculiar feature in thefe Proceedings, that they are all prepared and executed according to the rules and forms of the Inquifition. Not only the nature of the affair, the quality of the Judges, the mode of procedore, and the procefs itself, put this matter beyond doubt, but the unfortunate Joan was conducted to execution with a mitre upon her head, as is the practice in Madrid and the East Indies. The Inquifition having in all cafes cautioully concealed the particulars of their proceedings, it becomes extremely im portant to examine the prefent with com fiderable attention. This Tribunal owes its origin to a caufe rational enough, viz. the protection and maintenance of the Ca tholic Faith; but the mode of procedure which it has created and adopted, the power it has affumed over perfons, its pretenfions to be exempt from the review of any fecular tribunal, its dreadful feverity, concealed under the appearance of mildness and conciliation, had long caufed its authority to be doubted, and finally rejected, in France. It would appear that its courfe of procedure was: 1k, to esta blish, by extrajudicial informations and interrogations, the certainty of the crime with which the accufed is charged: 2dly, to inftitute proceedings in form againit thofe whom it deems guilty: 3dly, to cause judgment and fentence to be given by the doctors who have been fpecially confulted for that purpose: 4thly, to do all that is poffible to bring back the guilty to the faith from which they have deviated; and, 5thly, never to fhew favour to those who again relapfe into error, who are placed in the rank of confirmed apofticy. This Tribunal, it is true, affects to have no power over the life of the individual; and that when it has failed to reftore the culprit to the path of truth, he fhould be delivered over to the fecular power, exhorting the Judges to treat the criminal with mildnefs; but, at the fime time, by a moft incredible abufe of autho rity, it affumes a most alarming doctrine of infallibility, while it profeffes the direct contrary. The Inquifition takes for granted, as a fettled point, that Princes have pronounced fentence of death again heretics and forcerers; but this is not generally true in France, where these rigorous punishments never exifted but in very particular cafes, which applied much leis It alfo affumes a right to judge of the doc to the cafe of Joan than to the Albigeois. trine and of the conduct of the accufed; and when fentence is paffed, if the fecular Judges were to examine the judgment, or prefume to decide upon the juffice or injustice of the decree, or to mitigate the punishment to any thing less than death, they would themfelves be amenable to the Inquifitorial Tribunal, although ecclefiaftical Judges molt clearly have never had any right to exceed the limits of penetentiary punishment impofed by the canons of the Church. Such, at leaft, is the atual ftate of things at the prefent moment, though it poffibly might have been different in former times; and, if it were otherwife, the exhortation matter. On the 20th of February, after having deliberated with the affeffors whether there were fufficient grounds to institute proceedings in caufâ fidei, the Bishop and the Vicar of the Inquifition ordered Joan to be fummoned to appear before them on the following day. To this citation the answered, that he would willingly attend, and would speak the truth in answer to the questions which might be put to her; but the intreated the Bishop to permit her to hear mats before being examined, and also that the might be attended by divines, as well of the French, as the English party. exhortation from the Inquifition to the previous to entering on the detail of the fecular Judge, to treat with mildness those who have been condemned in matters of faith, would be truly ridiculous. According, then, to the practice of this dangerous Institution, the fecular Judges have nothing more to do than to deliver over the accused to the executioner; and this mode of procedure does feem to have been adopted in Spain, in Portugal, and in Goa. By thefe means the Inquifition, in fome degree, ufurps the power of the Churen itfelt, in each particular affair, affuming that infallibility which is promifed to the Univerfal Church alone, and not to any distinct tribunal, compofed of divines and doctors chofen by itfelf, either for the purpose of advice, or fitting in judgment. The importance of this obfervation may be traced in the courfe of all the proceedings against Joan of Arc. On the other hand, the accufation confifts of nothing more than a continued charge against Joan of having been the object of frequent visits from the Angel St. Michael and the Angel Gabriel, and of having had daily intercourfe with St. Catherine and St. Margaret. In short, never to have acted, fpoken, or answered, in the whole courfe of her life, not even during the trial, but by their orders, and under the guidance of their revelations. The Inquifition, therefore, in this cafe, were proceeding against a woman who declared and believed herself to be acting under fupernatural influence; who, upon the faith of thefe revelations, had foretold the fuccefs which actually happened to Charles VII.; who forefaw the refult of the proceedings against her; and who died maintaining the truth of what the averred both to have feen and heard, in fpite of the retractation she made on one of the days of trial, and which the entirely recalled. This fecond point of view, although very extraordinary, is one, nevertheless, which must be kept conftantly in fight, on examining cafes of this nature, which, at the prefent time, appear new and furpriz. ing, but which were not really fo at that period; for it was a common thing, when a man had, by a compact with the Devil, yielded to him his right hand, that, before being executed, he defired it might be cut off, that the Devil, in taking his hand, might have no further claim upon the other parts of his body*. Thefe preliminary obfervations will appear neceffary, from the nature of the cafe, * Vide Villaret, vol. xv. p. 12. On the following day, the Bishop, accompanied by thirty-nine assessors, abbes, doctors, licentiates, and bachelors in divinity, canon-law, civil law, and medicine, matter of arts, canons, eclefiaftical as well as temporal, whom he had fummoned, opened the meeting, by giving an account of what had been done in the bufinefs. He added, that Joan had demanded to hear mals before being examined, which he had not thought proper to grant, confidering the crimes of which he was accufed, and the impropriety of the drefs which the ftill perfifted to wear. While he was speaking, Joan was brought in: he took no notice of her requeft, to have eclefiaftical Judges ap pointed on the part of Charles VII. and the herfelf forgot to mention it; fo that it is not improbable that the affeffors knew nothing of.it; at least, it is certain, that they neither deliberated, or made any order upon the subject. They made her fit down: the Bishop then exhorted her to speak the truth, and to take the accustomed oath. She answered, that he was ignorant on what they might interrogate her.: that they might examine her upon points on which the could not communicate, and that therefore fhe could not take the oath. The Bishop replied, that he was required to fwear to fpeak the truth upon matters concerning faith, and others, on which they might question her. She then faid, that he was ready to take the oath, to speak the truth concerning her father and mother, and as to what he had done in France; but that with respect to the revelations which had been made to her from God, she would fay nothing for the prefent, although they might cut off her head: that she had, by means of her visions, fecret countel to reveal nothing; but that in eight days the would know what fhe could fay. The The Bishop having represented to her, that the could not in any event refufe to fpeak the truth in matters concerning faith; the immediately knelt down, and, placing her hand upon a missal, took an oath to declare the truth upon every point which fhould be demanded of her, relating to faith, but ftill perfifted in her refolution to divulge nothing concerning the revelations which had been made to her. The Court was contented with this oath, for their first fitting; but on the fecond exa. mination, in the following day, the diffi. culty which has been before noticed, prefented itself. She was therefore required to take a general oath, but the ftill infifted upon adhering to that already adminiftere. On being preffed to comply, the complained of their perfecution, in demanding a new oath; adding, that there were fome things of which the could fpeak, and others that the ought to conceal; and that if they were well informed concerning her, they ought to wish that she was out of their hands, for he did nothing but through the impulfe of the revelations which were made to her. At length, on the third examination, the recurrence of the fame difficulty induced the Court to demand from her a new oath of a general nature, which he three times refuted. The Bishop warned her, that, if the perfifted, the charges against her would be taken as true; and, upon her fourth refufal, he renewed his advice, that he should take an oath to fpeak the truth, at least, on every point relative to the profecution. This fubtlety prevailed. She took the oath, and would never take any other during the whole trial. The preliminary examinations, which lafted from the 21ft of February to the 17th of March, 1430, old style, and often occupied both morning and evening, were principally directed to procure as much information as poffible. Some obfervations appear neceffary here upon thefe preliminary proceedings. On the fitting of the 21st of February, after afking her name, the place of her birth, whether fhe had been baptized, the names of her parents, and alfo of her godfather and god-mother, her age, which The faid was about 19, and the nature of the religious instruction the had received, which the declared had been taught her folely by her mother, who had learned her to repeat the Sunday hymn, the Angel's Salutation, and the Creed. The Bishop of Beauvais requested her to recite the Lord's Prayer. This the refufed, unMONTHLY MAG, No. 114. lefs the Bishop would confefs her; but inftead of complying with her demand, which would have prevented his continuing a Judge, he offered her two capable perfons, understanding the French language, who might hear her repeat the Lord's Prayer. She ftill, however, perfitted in her refufal, unless the Bishop would himfelf confefs her; not, as fhe declared, because the would not willingly repeat the prayer, but because she wished to engage the Bishop to comply with her requeft, for which fhe did not affign any motive. In the fame fitting, the Biliop forbade her to go out of the prifon without leave, upon pain of being convicted of the crime of herefy. This appears to be a form of the Inquifition, as he did not perfift, on her refufal to promife, which the faid she did, because if the fhould be able to efcape, no one might reproach her with having broken her word, when he had never pledged it. Upon her complaining of being imprifoned in a cell, and chained with iron, the Bifhop anfwered, that he had ordered it, becaufe he had feveral times attempted to efcape from the prifons in which the had been confined. She admitted that he had, and would again try to efcape, which she faid was fair for every prifoner to do. On the fecond fitting, the Bfhop did not conduct the examination himfelf, but entrusted it to the Sieur Beaupere, although he at the fame time attended and affifted. The examinations were conducted in a room of the caftle at Rouen, which is called the Chamber of Parliament. Joan alio was confined in a room of the castle. At the fitting of the third of March, after he had withdrawn, the Bishop of Beauvais informed the affeffors, that, without delaying the proceedings, ha fhould advife with the doctors and learned men in both laws, as to collecting the confeffions already made by the accused; and to learn from them, whether any more information fhould be obtained. That fome of the affeffors only should be prefent at the new examinations, in order that the whole might not be fatigued by fuch frequent fittings. At the fame time all that chofe might deliberate upon what had been already done; and he exhorted them to employ their thoughts upon the holy canons and the laws, communicating to him, and thofe who fhould be delegated, the refults of their refrections. He alfo forbade them to depart from Rouen until the trial fhould be concluded. On the 14th of March, the doctors in Y y divinity, |